The Incan Empire, the largest and most advanced society in South America prior to European colonization, was located in the Andes mountains from Ecuador down south to Chile. The Andes reach vast altitudes with difficult terrain. For an agricultural society these conditions could be difficult, but the Inca developed innovative farming techniques to sustain their large population in the challenging Andean environment.  

Among the most remarkable agricultural achievements of the Inca was terrace farming, which allowed them to cultivate crops on steep mountain slopes. Terrace farming involved carving flat steps, or terraces, into hillsides. These terraces (andenes) were reinforced with stone walls to prevent soil erosion and to retain water. In dense, rainforest sections of the mountains systems would be set up to drain fields of excess water. In dry, arid climates irrigation water would be brought down to the terraces in canals and reservoirs from high mountain ice and snow melt. This method of farming helped maximize arable land in the mountainous terrain and made farming more efficient. Additionally, terraces prevented rainwater from washing away nutrients, creating a stable and fertile growing environment. Many of these terraces, built centuries ago, are still in use today.

The Incas grew a variety of crops suited to different elevations. Potatoes were their most important crop, supporting their agricultural economy because it thrives in high-altitude regions. They cultivated over 3,000 varieties of the root vegetable, many of which were resistant to harsh conditions. Another staple was maize (corn), which was grown at lower elevations and used for food, chicha (a fermented drink), and religious ceremonies. Quinoa, rich in protein, was another vital crop, as were beans, peppers, and squash. 

To ensure agricultural success, the Incas developed sophisticated methods. They practiced crop rotation to maintain soil fertility. They built storage facilities called qollqas to preserve surplus food for times of drought or famine. And they also created agricultural centers like the one found at Moray near Cuzco, Peru. Here the terraces are found in circular formation with intricate irrigation systems throughout. Because of the differences in elevation between terraces and the way the sun hits each section, the temperature can differ to as much as 40° F, creating microclimates. This allowed the Incas to experiment and determine the ideal conditions for crops to thrive.  

The Incan agricultural system was not only efficient but also sustainable, allowing their empire to flourish in an environment where farming was difficult. Their advanced techniques, particularly terrace farming, remain an important example of early engineering and environmental adaptation.

Francisco de Orellana and the Amazon Warriors

Francisco de Orellana was a Spanish explorer and conquistador best known for his journey down the Amazon River from 1541–1542. He was part of an expedition led by Gonzalo Pizarro to explore the interior of South America in search of riches, particularly the mythical "Land of Cinnamon" and the fabled El Dorado. However, after facing extreme hardships, Orellana and his men became separated from Pizarro and decided to navigate the vast river system eastward, ultimately reaching the Atlantic Ocean.

During his journey, Orellana and his men reportedly encountered fierce female warriors who lived in a matriarchal society along the river. These warriors, according to the account of a religious cleric traveling with Orellana, were tall, strong, and skilled in combat, wielding bows and arrows. He compared them to the Amazons of Greek mythology, the legendary female warriors said to have lived near the Black Sea. Tales of these women gave the Amazon River its name.

While some historians believe Orellana exaggerated his encounters to make his expedition seem more extraordinary, others suggest he may have encountered an indigenous tribe where women played a significant role in battle or leadership. Some anthropologists speculate that his description could have been based on warrior traditions among certain South American tribes, such as the Icamiabas, who were known to be formidable fighters. In the early 1970s two researchers, one an ethnologist and one an archeologist, were led to caves by the Galeras people in western Brazil. Based on these carvings and artifacts found nearby, they were convinced that the area was once inhabited by female warriors who ruled the society. 

Regardless of whether Orellana's story was factual or embellished, it contributed to the mystique of the Amazon region, reinforcing European fantasies about the unexplored New World. His accounts also fueled the legend of powerful warrior women in the Americas, a theme that persists in popular culture today.

Learn the Words, People, and Expressions:

Curio cupboards: a display case made of glass with a wood or metal framework used to present a collection of objects or “curiosities” 

Bicycle bloomers: bloomers became popular for women in the 1880s and 90s after the bicycle started to be mass produced and women started riding them. Bloomers were divided underpants allowing for better movement, but then also developed into a wool divided trouser worn by women when doing athletic activities. They were met with much controversy and were associated with the suffragette movement and women’s equality. 

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca_Empire#Agriculture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes#Climate_and_hydrology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And%C3%A9n

https://www.exploorperu.com/blog/cusco/moray-inca-ruins

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/farming-like-the-incas-70263217/

https://blog.incarail.com/inca-terrace-farming/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qullqa

https://www.isaaa.org/kc/cropbiotechupdate/features/inca.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazons

https://www.pbs.org/conquistadors/orellana/gold_02.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_de_Orellana

https://www.thoughtco.com/biography-of-francisco-de-orellana-2136568

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Dorado

https://www.delanceyplace.com/view-archives.php?p=4370

https://time.com/archive/6839462/science-womens-lib-amazon-style/