Along the west coast of northern Chile and Southern Peru is the Atacama desert, a cool, arid plateau, once home to the Chinchorro culture from about 7000 BC to 1500 BC. It was here that the oldest mummy, dating back to 7010 BC, was discovered. The Chinchorro mummy was 3000 years older than the oldest Egyptian mummy discovered to date. Unlike the Egyptians, who traditionally mummified the elite and illustrious members of society, the Chinchorro held a practice of preserving all members of their society and burying them rather close to the surface, resulting in hundreds of mummies being found to date. The most elaborate of treatment could be found in the mummification of infants and children.  

There is evidence that the Chinchorro mummification process and techniques changed over time, but overall the process held the same concepts. Archeologists found the mummies had all internal organs removed, including the brain. The body was then reinforced with sticks and stuffed with organic matter, such as vegetable skins, feathers, grass or soil. The mummies would all receive a clay mask, and then the body, wrapped in dried reeds, would be left to dry completely. Researchers hypothesize the Chinchorro believed the mummification of their dead allowed the soul of the deceased to survive. 

The Inca civilization, which thrived in the Andes Mountains of South America from the 15th to the early 16th century, also practiced mummification. The Inca carefully mummified their dead, often through a process of natural desiccation facilitated by the dry, cold climate of the Andes. Bodies were typically buried in seated, fetal-like positions, symbolizing rebirth, and wrapped in textiles with grave goods like food, tools, and valuables for use in the afterlife.

Unlike Egyptian and Chinchorro mummification, which relied on artificial techniques like embalming, Inca mummification often harnessed natural environmental conditions. In high-altitude areas, the extreme cold and low humidity naturally preserved bodies. Alternatively, in desert regions, the arid climate helped dry out remains.

The discovery of ice mummies, or bodies which have been unintentionally preserved due to low temperatures, dating back to the Inca period, showed researchers evidence that the Inca would leave victims of sacrifices in the elements to expire. One such case is that of the Llullailaco mummies. These were three children who were part of a religious ritual, given alcohol and coca (i.e. cocaine) and placed in small chambers or tombs atop a mountain. Child sacrifice was an important part of the Inca religion and was considered a great honor for those chosen. The belief was that the children would not die, but would watch over their people along with their ancestors from atop the mountains. 

Inca mummification was a vital part of their spiritual and cultural traditions and was deeply tied to their concept of ancestor worship. They believed that deceased individuals, particularly rulers and significant figures, maintained influence over the living. The mummies of Inca rulers, known as mallquis, were treated with extreme reverence. These mummies were often housed in temples or shrines and brought out during ceremonies or festivals. They were dressed in fine garments, offered food and drink, and consulted on important decisions, reflecting the belief that their spirits continued to guide the community.

It is clear that for both the Chinchorro and the Inca, the ritual of mummification was an effort for them to honor their dead and to maintain a connection with their ancestors, connecting the past with the present. Due to the dry and arid climate of the region, these well-preserved mummies have offered the chance to learn more about the practices of these ancient civilizations. 

American Gangsters

The early 20th century marked a pivotal era for the formation and expansion of gangs in major American cities like New York and Chicago. Rooted in the socio-economic challenges of the time, these gangs emerged as a byproduct of rapid urbanization, immigration, and the social stratification of growing industrial cities. 

New York’s gang culture traces its origins to the influx of immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly from Ireland, Italy, and Eastern Europe. Immigrant neighborhoods like Five Points became breeding grounds for gang activity as impoverished residents sought solidarity and protection against ethnic discrimination and police harassment. Early gangs like the Bowery Boys and the Dead Rabbits gained notoriety during the 19th century, setting the stage for the 20th-century gangs such as the White Hand Gang and the Five Points Gang. Led by figures like Paul Kelly, the Five Points Gang was instrumental in shaping organized crime, recruiting members who would later become prominent mobsters, such as Al Capone who later moved to Chicago. Gangs often controlled local politics, ran gambling dens, and engaged in extortion and racketeering.

In Chicago, gang activity was similarly fueled by waves of immigrants, particularly Italians, Poles, and African Americans during the Great Migration from the Southern United States. The city’s gang scene evolved within an environment of corrupt politicians and economic disparity. The Valley Gang, founded in the late 19th century, became one of Chicago’s most prominent early criminal organizations. Initially a street gang involved in petty crimes like robbery and street violence, the gang grew in power through its connection to the city’s political bosses. By the 1920s, the Valley Gang shifted its focus to bootlegging during Prohibition, forming alliances with other criminal groups, eventually allying with The Outfit in 1925. 

The Outfit was one of the most notorious organized crime syndicates in American history. Emerging from earlier groups like the South Side Gang, The Outfit, under leaders such as Johnny Torrio and Al Capone, dominated the illegal liquor trade, gambling, and prostitution. The Outfit’s influence extended beyond Chicago, and its violent tactics, including the infamous St. Valentine’s Day Massacre of 1929, demonstrated its ruthless quest for control.

Both New York and Chicago gangs were products of urban poverty, ethnic tensions, and a lack of social mobility. They operated as pseudo-social organizations, providing jobs and protection while engaging in illegal activities. By mid-century, gangs like The Outfit had evolved into highly organized crime syndicates, reshaping America’s criminal landscape. These early gangs were the foundations for today’s vast organized crime and gangs that spread across the nation and plague law enforcement agencies. 

Sources:

https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23496345

https://www.thecollector.com/mummies-inca-chinchorro/

https://www.worldhistory.org/article/699/inca-mummies/

https://www.chile.travel/en/travel-log/meet-the-chinchorro-mummies-the-oldest-ones-in-the-world/

https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20220519-chiles-desert-town-built-on-mummies

https://www.history.com/news/inca-mummies-afterlife

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinchorro_culture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinchorro_mummies#

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummy#South_America

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_of_Llullaillaco

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangs_in_the_United_States#

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_Gang#Terry_Druggan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangs_in_Chicago

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Outfit#History

https://www.fbi.gov/history/brief-history/the-fbi-and-the-american-gangster

https://www.americanmafia.com/Feature_Articles_131.html

https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/al-capone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mafia#