The Panama Canal is one of the most remarkable engineering accomplishments in history, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the narrow Isthmus of Panama. Its creation fundamentally altered global trade and military strategy by providing a shorter and more efficient maritime route. The canal's story is one of vision, failure, and triumph, shaped by both European and American ambitions. 

The concept of a canal across Panama dates back to the early 16th century when the Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa became the first European to cross the isthmus in 1513. He discovered this narrow strip of land separated two vast oceans. Realizing the strategic importance of a transcontinental passage, Spain considered building a canal but ultimately abandoned the idea due to technological limitations and the vastness of the project. Centuries later, in the mid-19th century, as global trade routes expanded, interest in a Central American canal revived. Between 1870 and 1875 a U.S. commission appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant, surveyed the options of canals in either Panama or Nicaragua. In 1876 the commission ruled in favor of the Nicaragua canal route.   

The first serious attempt to construct the Panama Canal was led by the French in the 1880s. Headed by Ferdinand de Lesseps, the man behind the successful Suez Canal, the French Panama Canal project sought to build a sea-level canal similar to Suez. However, the differences in geography and climate between Panama and Egypt soon became apparent. Panama's dense jungles, heavy rainfall, and the unpredictability of the Chagres River made construction far more challenging. In addition, tropical diseases like yellow fever and malaria devastated the workforce, killing thousands of laborers. The French project eventually collapsed in 1889 due to financial mismanagement and the loss of approximately 22,000 lives, leaving behind a partially excavated canal.

After the French failure, the U.S. took over the project in 1904, following Panama's independence from Colombia in 1903 and the signing of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which gave the U.S. rights to build and control the canal. In the years previous, The US government had gone ahead with their plan of constructing a Nicaraguan canal, but logistical, political, and legal issues prevented further approval from Congress and pushed them in favor of Panama. Under President Theodore Roosevelt's leadership, the U.S. embarked on a renewed effort, determined to succeed where the French had failed. The American approach was different: rather than constructing a sea-level canal, they opted for a lock-based system to manage the varying elevations and the powerful rivers.

Two of the most important advancements during the U.S. construction was in public health and infrastructure. Dr. William Gorgas, A U.S. Army physician, was appointed chief sanitation officer for the project. Under Dr. Gorgas, an effective campaign was waged against the mosquitoes that transmitted yellow fever and malaria, including fumigation, mass larvicide spraying, mosquito nets, and eliminating stagnant water. These efforts dramatically reduced disease and allowed construction to progress. In parallel, Chief Engineer John Stevens, who was a self-taught engineer is lauded for his contributions. Stevens’ first efforts was to ensure those who were working on the project had places to live that were safe and comfortable. He had housing rebuilt and expanded and included cafeterias, hotels, improved water systems, repair shops, etc to serve the thousands who were employed there. Stevens also rebuilt and enlarged the railway to transport excavated materials through the rough terrain. 

The U.S. construction effort involved excavating massive amounts of earth, particularly in the Culebra Cut (also known as the Gaillard Cut), a mountainous region that posed significant geological and engineering challenges. Workers used dynamite to blast through rock and created a series of locks and artificial lakes to manage the elevation difference between the oceans. Gatun Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes in the world at the time, was formed by damming the Chagres River, and the Gatun Locks were built to lift ships 85 feet to the lake and then lower them on the other side.

The Panama Canal was officially opened on August 15, 1914, just as World War I was beginning. Its completion revolutionized global shipping by cutting the distance between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by 8,000 miles, eliminating the need for ships to navigate the treacherous waters around the southern tip of South America. The canal quickly became a critical artery for both commerce and military strategy.

For most of the 20th century, the canal remained under U.S. control, leading to tensions with Panama. In 1977, the Torrijos-Carter Treaties were signed, establishing a process for Panama to gain full control of the canal. This transition was completed on December 31, 1999, and today the canal is operated by the Panama Canal Authority. The canal has been expanded with the opening of the "Panama Canal Expansion" in 2016, allowing larger ships to pass through and reinforcing its pivotal role in global trade. 

William and Horatio Eddy: two American brothers from Vermont known in the 1870’s for their alleged psychic powers and practice as mediums. 

The Green Tavern: an Inn converted from the Eddy family farmhouse by the Eddy brothers. It was here where they held séances and spiritual manifestations for visitors. 

Koot Hoomi and Morya: allegedly two of the Mahatmas (spiritually initiated masters) Madame Blavatsky claimed inspired the founding of Theosophy 

Valley of the Kings: Part of the ancient city of Thebes in Egypt and was the burial site for the kings (pharaohs) for 500 years, from the 16th to 11th century BC. 

Luxor: a city in Egypt which includes the ancient city of Thebes 

Rubber Extraction: or rubber tapping, is the process by which latex is extracted from a rubber tree. This is done by making a shallow, but long cut in the bark and collecting the latex sap. 

Hijab: head coverings worn by many Muslim women as an expression of their faith 

Amma or Am’ma: a term of address for a mother in Indian English and is used in some Egyptian countryside villages. It is derived from Sanskrit and in Hinduism, Amma is believed to represent the mother goddess and the source of life and fertility. 

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal

https://pancanal.com/en/history-of-the-panama-canal/

https://guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-panama-canal

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Panama-Canal

https://www.gutenberg.org/files/24901/24901-h/24901-h.htm

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/panama-canal

https://www.archives.gov/research/foreign-policy/panama-canal