Bridge on the Sutlej. Sir Henry Yule 1846. Courtesy of the British Library
Flag of Dutch East India Company
Flag of British East India Company
The Dutch East India Company, also known as the United East India Company, or the VOC, was founded in 1602, and was a pioneering force in the spice trade originating from the Netherlands. With the primary aim of monopolizing trade in the East Indies (present-day Indonesia), the VOC armed itself with a formidable fleet, and being backed by the Dutch government, established trading posts, controlled key ports, and secured lucrative partnerships with local rulers. Its success stemmed from a combination of strategic alliances, naval supremacy, and efficient commerce, focusing on spices like nutmeg, cloves, and pepper.
The VOC's influence extended beyond trade; it possessed its own army, waged wars, and governed territories, effectively operating as a quasi-state. However, its dominance faced challenges due to conflicts with other European powers and the burden of managing vast territories. Despite initial prosperity, internal corruption, mismanagement, and economic decline eventually led to its dissolution in the late 18th century.
The British East India Company, or the EIC, established in 1600, emerged as a force in trade and colonization, marking its presence primarily in the Indian subcontinent. Initially focused on the lucrative textile trade, the EIC expanded its influence by establishing forts, acquiring territories, and exploiting local resources. It gradually gained control over key regions in India, leveraging its military might and political maneuvering.
The EIC's impact was not merely economic; it significantly influenced India's socio-political landscape. The company indirectly ruled vast territories, transforming from a trading entity to a territorial power. However, its rule was marked by exploitation, economic plundering, and social upheavals, leading to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which ultimately resulted in the British Crown assuming direct control of India.
The EIC and the VOC were direct competitors of each other. The competition was especially fierce amongst the spice trade in the Moluccas; Islands in Indonesia where, at the time, only certain spices could be found, such as nutmeg and cloves. Tensions ran so high between the companies that four separate wars broke out during the mid 1600s to late 1700s.
Both companies shared similarities in the way they operated, including autocratic practices, colonization efforts, and wielding considerable political power. Both, in addition to trading goods, were also involved in the slave trade. Transporting abducted adults and children from Africa to their occupied territories and forcing them into labor for the company. In addition, these individuals were treated as commodities and were traded just as spices and silks were.
The legacy that both these large corporations left are monumental. For both Britain and the Netherlands their companies vastly opened up international trade routes, brought goods into their countries that enriched their society, and improved their national economy. Conversely, these companies were very imperialistic in their attempts to monopolize their trades and in doing so engaged in excessive violence, wars, destruction, etc. all leading to tens of millions of deaths. Most of the deaths were due to famine in both regions because of the immense impact that these European forces had on local agriculture.
As the first examples of multinational corporations, the EIC and VOC were the world’s first look at “big business” and the quest for excessive gains and wealth on a large scale. Many of the lessons learned today in economics on open markets, monopolies, and corporate accountability can be traced back to these two companies.
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company#Criticism
https://geheugen.delpher.nl/en/
https://theecologist.org/2006/nov/01/east-india-company-first-multinational-corporation
https://www.government.nl/topics/discrimination/history-of-slavery/the-history-of-slavery-in-the-kingdom-of-the-netherlands
Ongley Mausoleum. St. Leonard’s Church, Old Warden, Bedfordshire, England. Historic Listed Building.
Milton Mausoleum. Milton, Nottinghamshire, England. Historic Listed Building.
A mausoleum is a grand and imposing structure built to house the remains of the deceased. It showcases exquisite architectural styles and intricate details. Mausolea can range in size and can house anywhere from one individual up to many in separate stone coffins, or sarcophagi. A mausoleum with a single occupant would usually be permanently sealed, while those with multiple occupants would have a door to access the inner burial chamber, which usually was dedicated to the use of a specific family.
Anciently and historically, mausolea were thought to be large and ornate buildings to house and honor the remains of kings or rulers. One example of this is the Taj Mahal in Agra, India, built by the Shah to house his wife’s remains and eventually his own. For centuries the British royals had been interring their deceased loved ones in tombs in what could be classified as a mausolea. Westminster Abbey, an entire cathedral which, to this day, is the final resting place to nearly 3,300 individuals, 18 of which are British monarchs could be considered a mausoleum. With the Abbey as an example, in the 17th century the use of smaller mausolea became popular among those who could afford to bury their dead in style. This usually included nobility and landed gentry.
There are several hundred mausolea in Britain today. They can be found in cemeteries, church yards, or on private estates. Because some of them are hundreds of years old, they have been classified as listed historical buildings and are protected. Though very few from the 1600s are still standing, most of the historical mausolea are from the 17 and 1800s. Most can be visited and viewed and a few are open to the public and can be toured. These monuments are a lasting reminder of not only those who are buried there but of the architecture and the grandeur.
Sealing Wax on Letters. Photo by Simon A. Eugster. Creative Commons
As many of our Flower Letters subscribers know, getting a letter in the mail is an exciting prospect. But over the centuries, with the advances in science and technology the mechanics of the written letter have changed: the paper used, the writing implements, how they’re delivered, and how the envelopes or letters are sealed. Today, most envelopes are sealed using adhesive, water soluble gum that’s activated by licking or with a wet sponge, or with glue. During the time the Adelaide Magnolia collection takes place, letters were primarily sealed using wax.
The use of wax seals traces all the way back to ancient civilizations in Egypt, China, and Mesopotamia where it can be found on official documents. It wasn’t until the Middle Ages, roughly around 500-100 AD, that the wax seal started to gain more popularity. They were used to authenticate documents, to seal letters (ensuring one could tell if a letter remained unopened), and to also add decoration to documents. Seals were often personal and indicated who the sender was and could be in the form of a stamp that sat on a desk, or formed into jewelry such as a ring or a necklace to be worn.
Signet Ring, Ball Black & Co. 1864. Courtesy of the MET
In Britain, the ruling family are well known for having the Great Seal of the Realm which gives the official seal of the Crown to official documents. It was Edward the Confessor, in the 11th century, who started the practice of using an official seal with an image of his face. This helped to alleviate administrative duties for the King by allowing his seal to be used by another instead of having him to physically sign every document requiring his approval. The practice continues in the royal family to this day. For each new Sovereign, a new seal is created at their request and only one is in use at a time.
The wax used for seals changed over the centuries. Anciently, straight beeswax was used, but in the Middle Ages, resin from trees was added to help harden it and make it stronger. Then colors were added, the most popular being red, which typically came from vermillion cinnabar mineral powder and then from red lead (oxide). Over time the formula continued to change and depended on one’s preference. Some sealing wax was even perfumed with scent. Today, wax is still being used by some who appreciate its ability to add a decorative and artistic touch to their personal correspondence.
Sarcophagus: a coffin made of stone, primarily used to display above ground, rather to bury a body.
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum
https://www.brightwater.group/gb-mausolea/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Abbey
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mausoleum
https://hankeringforhistory.com/the-history-of-wax-seals/
https://www.royal.uk/great-seal-realm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sealing_wax
https://www.fredlake.com/the-rediscovered-art-of-wax-seals
King George III in Coronation Robes. 1765 Allan Ramsay. Courtesy of the Art Gallery of South Australia.
Queen Charlotte (1744-1818). 1781 Thomas Gainsborough. Courtesy of the Royal Collection Trust.
King George III, born on June 4, 1738, ascended the British throne in 1760, marking the beginning of a reign that would span nearly six decades. His marriage to Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz occurred on September 8, 1761. Charlotte, born on May 19, 1744 in the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (now part of Germany), was chosen as George's bride after a brief courtship arranged by their families. Their union began as an attempt for King George to establish stability as monarch and maintain political ties with Germany, but it was also a genuine partnership characterized by mutual respect and affection. Charlotte was known for her modesty, grace, and devotion to her family. The couple would attend events together and would even perform duets with each other on the harpsichord and flute. The couple had 15 children together, 13 of whom reached adulthood.
The first half of George’s reign was filled with political ups and downs. He came into his reign (1760) during the Seven Year’s war, where Britain came out victorious over France and established itself as a major European power abroad. However, British colonies were lost not long after that in the American War of Independence. King George was blamed by his political opponents for prolonging the war and increasing the expense upon the Kingdom. In the decades to follow George experienced both wins and losses politically, but was also viewed by many as a good king who favored progress and approached his rule with sincerity. Additionally, his devotion to his wife and family made him unique as a monarch and favorable to his subjects.
Charlotte was a devoted and loyal Queen Consort, wife, and mother. Coming to England, not speaking the language, and not having any connections required a period of adjustment. Despite these barriers, Charlotte became known widely in society as a lover of art and music, attending concerts, and, along with the king, a great supporter of German artists and composers. Her involvement in founding the Queen Charlotte's Maternity Hospital in London and her support for orphanages demonstrated her commitment to social welfare.
One aspect of Charlotte's life that generated rumors, however, was her racial heritage. Though some during her life time may have remarked on her complexion being not as white as other European royalty, the true breadth of rumors of her ancestry did not sprout until the 1920’s when a German historian noted the differences in her painted portraits and highlighted that one portrayed her with having more “African” features. Some historians and genealogists now claim that Charlotte may have had North African or Moorish ancestry from her maternal grandmother’s line dating back to the 13th century. But even today there is controversy over this one ancestor of Charlotte’s and what her ethnicity really was. In the end, there really is no concrete proof to confirm or deny these claims and most scholars, as well as the Royal Family, denounce these claims and don’t spend too much time dwelling on them.
Despite the possible speculation, King George III and Charlotte's marriage was stable and happy until King George started experiencing episodes of mental illness. In 1788 he had a long bought of mania, delirium, convulsions, and violent behavior. George experienced additional, but shorter, episodes in both 1801 and 1804. During these episodes, George was moved to Dutch House at Kew Palace where he was watched over by his physicians. After each relapse and recovery, it became apparent the King’s mental and physical health was deteriorating. In 1810, after becoming blind from cataracts, he experienced his final relapse. This episode rendered King George III permanently insane. In this state it was necessary for parliament to pass the Regency Act of 1811, appointing his son, the Prince of Wales, as Prince Regent during the remainder of the King’s lifetime.
During the time of the Regency, Queen Charlotte continued her official role as reigning Queen and was host alongside her son for state functions. By this time, Charlotte was afraid to visit her spouse because of his erratic behavior and violence, but she remained supportive from a distance and was his legal guardian. Sadly, in 1818, Queen Charlotte suffered a stroke, and her health declined rapidly. She passed away on the 17th of November. King George’s mental state was so deteriorated by this point, that he was unable to recognize that his wife had passed away. He survived his wife by roughly 14 months and passed away from pneumonia on January 29th, 1820.
The Exterior of St. James’s Palace. Courtesy of the Royal Collection Trust
St. James’s palace is located in Westminster in central London and is the most senior royal palace. It is one of the oldest and most prestigious palaces in the city and holds a unique place in British royal history. Built by Henry VIII in the 1530’s, the palace has served various functions over the years, including as a royal residence, a court, and a place for official ceremonies.
One of its notable features is the impressive red-brick Tudor architecture, which contrasts with the grandeur of nearby Buckingham Palace. St. James's Palace has been a residence for many British monarchs, including Queen Mary I and Queen Anne, and continues to be a significant location for various royal events, such as investitures and diplomatic receptions.
While it is no longer a primary royal residence, St. James's Palace remains a symbol of tradition and history, and the Chapel Royal within its walls is still used for important religious ceremonies. The palace's location near St. James's Park and Westminster makes it a central part of the capital's historic and cultural landscape, allowing visitors to appreciate its rich history and architectural beauty.
Up to snuff: meeting an acceptable standard
Watering pot: someone who cries too much
St. James Park: 57 acre urban park in Westminster, London adjacent to St. James’s Palace with Buckingham Palace on its western side
Sources:
https://www.hrp.org.uk/kew-palace/history-and-stories/queen-charlotte/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_III
https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-III
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/mar/12/race-monarchy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4953321/
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/adams-king-george-III/
https://www.history.co.uk/articles/king-george-iiis-descent-into-madness-a-tale-of-royal-tragedy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_James%27s_Palace
https://www.royal.uk/royal-residences-st-jamess-palace
https://www.rct.uk/8-surprising-facts-about-st-jamess-palace
The Battle of New Orleans. 1910 Edward Percy Moran. Courtesy of the Library of Congress.
The Battle of New Orleans
The Battle of New Orleans stands as a significant and the deadliest conflict in the War of 1812. Fought on January 8, 1815 east of New Orleans near modern day Chalmette, Louisiana, this engagement occurred after the official end of the war due to communication delays, making it a concluding flourish of the conflict.
Situated along the Mississippi River, New Orleans was a crucial port city for both trade and military strategy. The British, led by Major General Sir Edward Pakenham, sought to seize this advantageous position, aiming to control the Mississippi and cut off access to the American interior. In contrast, the American forces, led by Brevet Major General Andrew Jackson, were determined to defend their territory and halt the British advance.
The battle was marked by a stark imbalance in troop strength. The British boasted a highly trained, professional army, battle-hardened from the Napoleonic Wars, while the American forces were an amalgamation of regular soldiers, militia, pirates, and Native American allies. Despite being outnumbered and outgunned, Jackson's ingenuity and the unique terrain of the battlefield played a crucial role in the American victory.
The British assault on January 8, 1815, aimed to breach American defenses through a frontal attack. However, Jackson had ingeniously fortified his position using a combination of earthworks, barricades, and artillery placements. As the British marched forward, they faced a withering hail of gunfire that decimated their ranks. The Americans, well-positioned and resolute, repelled wave after wave of British assaults.
One of the most remarkable aspects of the Battle of New Orleans was the stunning success of the American marksmen. The skilled riflemen, many of them frontiersmen and militiamen, picked off British officers and soldiers with deadly accuracy. This disrupted British command and sowed confusion among their ranks, contributing to their defeat.
The British suffered heavy losses, including their commanding officer, Major General Sir Edward Pakenham. In contrast, the Americans experienced minimal casualties. The resounding victory elevated Andrew Jackson to the status of a national hero and bolstered American morale, as news of the triumph spread across the country.
The Battle of New Orleans, although occurring after the formal end of the War of 1812, had a profound impact on shaping the post-war narrative. It highlighted American resilience, resourcefulness, and military capability against all odds. Additionally, it set the stage for future negotiations, ultimately leading to the ratification of the Treaty of Ghent, which officially ended the war.
Map of the Louisiana Purchase Territory, 1803-1819. 1903. Department of the Interior, General Land Office. Courtesy of the US National Archives.
The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 was the largest land acquisition in US history. The deal nearly doubled the size of the fledgling nation and ran west from the Mississippi river and included its westward drainage basin, incorporating parts of 15 modern day states. The land was purchased from the French for the sum of 15 million dollars. This purchase significantly impacted the United States in numerous ways, including its influence on race relations. This vast land acquisition had profound consequences for the indigenous populations, African Americans, and the broader racial dynamics within the expanding country.
The land acquired through the purchase included the territories of many indigenous nations, such as the Osage, Cherokee, Choctaw, and others. Though the French did not actually occupy and control much of this land, the US purchased the right to claim such land via treaty or occupation in the future. In the decades following, the government's westward expansion policies led to the forced removal of these Native American groups from their ancestral lands, resulting in the tragic, ethnic cleansing later termed the Trail of Tears. This displacement of indigenous peoples had profound implications for these tribes and impacted them economically, socially, and physically. In fact, by the late 1800s their populations had nearly declined by half.
When the United States made the purchase of the new land, the population in the area of present-day Louisiana was made up of almost half enslaved Africans originating from the transatlantic slave trade under Spanish and French colonial rule. However, there were also many free people of color. In addition, this area was also receiving many refugees from the slave revolt in modern day Haiti. Many of these refugees were plantation owners who brought their slaves with them. This created a desire in the population of slaveholders to create laws to curb the desire of slaves to revolt as they did in Haiti and to make it lawful for them to use slave labor as they ventured into the new territory to set up new plantations and farms. This is when slavery became institutionalized in Louisiana.
As the land which made up the Louisiana Purchase was organized into states, the issue of and legality of slavery started becoming a heated topic of discussion in Congress. It became an argument between southern and northern states. Southern states arguing on behalf of slavery and northern states against. When the territory of Missouri petitioned to become a slave state, the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which allowed it to enter the Union as a slave state while Maine entered as a free state, aimed to maintain a delicate balance between slave and free states within the expanding nation.
Unfortunately, the Missouri Compromise only seemed to exacerbate tensions over the issue of slavery between slaveholders and abolitionists, fueling the growing debate over the morality and legality of slavery. This conflict ultimately culminated in the American Civil War, which was rooted in the racial divisions and tensions exacerbated by the westward expansion of the United States.
The acquisition of this vast territory opened up new opportunities for white settlers to establish themselves in regions previously inhabited by Native Americans and, in some cases, Mexicans. This westward movement of white settlers often led to the displacement and marginalization of non-white populations, contributing to a legacy of racial inequality and injustice, with residual effects that exist to this day.
While the Louisiana Purchase is celebrated as a monumental event in American history for its role in expanding the nation, it also had a profound impact on race relations. The forced removal of Native American communities, the ongoing debate over slavery, and the westward expansion of white settlers all influenced groups of people who have experienced centuries of racial inequality and injustices that have seeped into the fabric of our social landscape. Though there have been attempts and efforts on behalf of the government to make reparations for both Native Americans and Black Americans it’s hard to erase the generational traumas many still suffer the effects of today.
Clod head: someone who is dull-witted
Fort San Miguel: a British fort built in 1778 in Pensacola, FL and originally known as Fort George. When the Spanish seized Pensacola in 1781, they renamed it Fort San Miguel.
Flogged: to beat someone severely with a whip or rod
Admiral Cochrane: Sir Alexander Cochrane, led naval forces for the British in North American waters during the War of 1812.
Nepotism: showing favoritism for those who are relatives, friends, or close associates
General Keane: A British Army officer leading troops to invade New Orleans in Dec 1814/Jan1815
Court-martialed: a military trial for someone who breaks military law
St. Louis Cemetery: the oldest and most famous cemetery in New Orleans, mostly consisting of above-ground vaults from the 18th and 19th centuries.
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans
https://www.history.com/topics/19th-century/battle-of-new-orleans
https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/battle-of-new-orleans
https://64parishes.org/entry/battle-of-new-orleans-2
https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/louisiana-purchase-treaty
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-the-louisiana-purchase-changed-the-world-79715124/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri_Compromise
https://www.cairn.info/revue-annales-de-demographie-historique-2005-2-page-17.htm
Apsley House, Hyde Park Corner, pg. 227 from “London in the Nineteenth Century” 1828. Courtesy British Library
Apsley House is most famous for being the home of the Dukes of Wellington, and most notably the 1st Duke of Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, who famously led a defeat of Napoleon in the battle of Waterloo. Apsley house was originally constructed between in 1771 and 1778 for Lord Chancellor Henry, 1st Baron of Apsley, giving the house it’s name. The architect who constructed the original building was Robert Adam, who once served as the Architect of the King’s Work, overseeing building and maintenance of royal castles and residences.
Apsley House is located at the southeast corner of Hyde Park at the formal entrance on Piccadilly. When it was first built, it was the first house built on the north side of Piccadilly and the first house travelers passed coming east from the toll gates at Knightsbridge. For this reason the house became known as Number 1, London. Today, its address is 149 Piccadilly.
The Duke of Wellington purchased the home in 1817 for £40,000, which was part of the money the government awarded him for his success against Napoleon. Wellington purchased the home from his brother, the Marquess of Wellesley, who had purchased the house ten years earlier but finical difficulties forced him to sell the home. Luckily, his brother was looking for a home befitting his new station in life as a famous and well-known war hero and now politician. The Duke entertained society’s finest in his home and even held an annual Waterloo Banquet to celebrate the allied victory over France.
Apsley House, now the Wellington Museum, is a museum and art gallery open to the public displaying paintings, artwork, and memorabilia of the 1st Duke of Wellington. The home and collection was given to the government in 1947, but the Wellington family is given use of family apartments on the second floor as long as there is a living Duke of Wellington. In the museum visitors can view over 3,000 works of art, including paintings by Diego Velasquez and Francisco Goya, and even a set of false teeth once belonging to the 1st Duke of Wellington. There are even a number of paintings and a large statue of Napoleon in the museum. Everything in the home is a preserved and restored statement of the impact the Duke of Wellington left on European history.
Thomas Moore. Engraving by G. Adcock, 19th century. Welsh Portrait Collection. Courtesy of National Library of Wales.
Thomas Moore, the celebrated Irish poet, singer, and songwriter, left a lasting mark on the literary and musical landscape of the 19th century. He was born on May 28, 1779, in Dublin, Ireland, to a prosperous grocer and an intelligent mother who raised him to cultivate his artistic side and to seek ambition. Moore's early life was marked by the intertwining of his deep love for his homeland and his passion for poetry and music.
From an early age, Moore displayed remarkable literary talent. He was educated at a private English school, then a popular English grammar school where he was encouraged in his literary and musical pursuits. It was at the age of 14 that Moore submitted his first verses for publication to the Dublin periodical, Anthologia Hibernica. He attended Trinity College, Dublin, where he befriended Robert Emmet, a prominent Irish nationalist. This friendship would have a lasting impact on Moore's life and work, influencing his later poems that expressed his ardor for Irish nationalism and freedom.
Moore's most celebrated work, "Irish Melodies," emerged from his collaboration with the renowned composer John Stevenson. These collections of lyrics set to traditional Irish tunes and melodies became wildly popular, resonating with both the Irish people and the wider English-speaking world. The songs not only celebrated Ireland's rich cultural heritage but also conveyed poignant themes of love, loss, and yearning for a better future. "The Minstrel Boy" and "The Last Rose of Summer" remain iconic pieces that continue to evoke emotions in listeners today.
Aside from his Irish-inspired works, Thomas Moore's literary prowess extended to political satire and social commentary. His "The Fudge Family in Paris" was a satirical poem targeting the British government, while "Lalla Rookh" showcased his romantic poetry skills, illustrating tales of love and adventure in the East.
Moore's talent was not confined to the written word alone. He was an accomplished singer with a sweet, melodious voice. His renditions of his own compositions enthralled audiences, and his performances drew people from various social circles. Moore's captivating presence on stage and his ability to connect with his audience contributed significantly to his popularity as both a poet and a musician. Moore led a vibrant social life, mingling with influential figures of his time. He was a close friend of Lord Byron, and their correspondence provides invaluable insights into the lives and thoughts of these literary legends.
Moore was also a great traveler. In 1803 he took a government position as Registrar of the Admiralty Prize-Court for Bermuda, but only lasted 6 months before finding life dull on the island. Moore appointed a deputy and left to tour the United States and Canada. He arrived in Norfolk, Virginia in 1804. After his trip to North America, Moore returned to London with fodder for his publications Epistles, Odes, and Other Poems (1806), where in satirical fashion he complained about America and its citizens.
In 1811, Thomas Moore married a fellow thespian named Elizabeth “Bessy” Dyke. Many of his romantic poems were addressed to Bessy and he always found coming home to her to be a comfort. Thomas and Bessy had five children: Anne, Anastasia Mary, Olivia Byron, John Russell, and Thomas Lansdowne. Anne died at age 5, Anastasia at age 17, Olivia only lived for a few months, John was killed while serving in the East India Company at the age of 19, and Thomas died at age 27 in Algiers while in the French Service. Thomas Sr. and Bessy both outlived their children. Thomas Moore died in 1852 at the age of 72 after a year’s long battle with dementia. His wife survived him by 13 years until she also died at the age of 72 in 1865.
Throughout his life, Thomas Moore championed the cause of Irish nationalism, and his poetry played an essential role in fostering a sense of national identity among the Irish people during a time of political upheaval. His artistry and advocacy for Irish culture left an indelible legacy that continues to inspire generations of writers, musicians, and activists.
Mendacious braggart: a lying show-off
Charade: a pretense in order to deceive
Watering pots: someone crying
“C’est l’etiquette darling”: “those are the rules darling”, meaning that is how things are done.
Sources:
https://www.propertylondon.co.uk/articles/apsley-house-a-glimpse-into-londons-illustrious-history/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsley_House
https://www.regencyhistory.net/2013/07/number-one-london-home-of-duke-of.html
https://www.wellingtoncollection.co.uk/wellington-stories/the-story-of-the-collection/
https://www.libraryireland.com/biography/ThomasMoore.php
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/thomas-moore
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Moore
Twelfth Night Merry-Making in Farmer Shakeshaft’s Barn. C. 1850. From Mervyn Clithroe by William Ainsworth. Public Domain
Twelfth Night is a holiday or festival which commemorates the close of the Christmas Season. This celebration is either recognized on January 5th or 6th, depending on whether local tradition starts counting the twelve days of Christmas on the 25th or the 26th. In medieval times, the Roman Catholic church declared that the entire time between Christmas and Epiphany, or when the wise men visited the baby Jesus, should be part of the celebration. This created what is now known as the twelve days of Christmas, or Christmastide, and also making Twelfth Night January 6th on the day of Epiphany. The Church of England celebrates Twelfth Night on January 5th, the night before Epiphany.
But whether on the 5th or the 6th, the celebration always included a large feast with friends and family and lots of merry-making. Many of these also included balls with masks and costumes where guests were encouraged to play a part of a character. But regardless of whether your festivities required you to play-act, there was always a Queen and King. The King and Queen were chosen via the Twelfth Cake, or sometimes referred to as the King’s Cake. In Medieval and Tudor times, a dried bean and a dried pea were placed into the cake before it was baked. The man who received the piece of cake containing the bean would become the “King of the Bean” for the evening, and the lady with the pea would be his queen. By the early 19th century, the bean and the pea had been replaced with little trinkets, coins, or thimbles.
Another common consumable of the Twelfth Night festivities was wassail. Wassail is a drink made wine, cider, ale, or brandy mulled with warm spices such as cinnamon, ginger, and nutmeg and then garnished with apples or oranges. The drink is then put into large bowls intended for shared drinking. The tradition would sometimes include bringing the bowl with you as you go around to your neighbors offering them a drink as you sing carols to them. This is referred to as wassailing.
Once festivities of Twelfth Night were over, it was time to clean up the Christmas season. It was thought that if you left up Christmas decorations past Epiphany, then you would bring bad luck to your household. All the greenery was removed and burned to ward off such dire consequences.
By the end of the 19th century in England, there were two factors that played into dwindling of the Twelfth Night celebrations. First, the rise of the Industrial Revolution created a larger workforce, who’s employers were anxious to have them back to work after the Christmas and New Year holidays. The Second was Queen Victoria. She thought the celebrations of Twelfth night were becoming increasingly more uproarious and unchristian. She then removed Twelfth Night from the official calendars, banning celebrations. Though celebrations dwindled, many traditions remained such as taking down decorations before January 6th, wassailing, and the King Cake.
The Mistletoe Bough. Frances Wheatley 1790. Courtesy of Yale Center for British Art
A kissing bough is a Christmas decoration tradition in England. The bough is made of greenery, usually evergreen, pine, ivy, mistletoe, berries and sometimes herbs. These were bent and tied together into a spherical shape and hung on walls or doorways to welcome guests into homes. They would be hung from Christmas Eve until Twelfth Night and be removed when all other greenery and decorations were removed to ward off bad luck. By the Georgian period in England, kissing boughs became more elaborate and were decorated with fruit, paper flowers, and colorful ribbons. Some even would have candles adhered to the top to add to their visual appeal.\
The host of a household would greet his guests during the holiday season under the bough and with each welcome kiss a berry would be taken off the bough. Once the berries were gone, no more kisses would be given. By the early and mid 1800s, the kissing bough took on a more romantic bent and offered courting couples more opportunities to flirt when society afforded them very little opportunities to do so. Some even believed that if a girl refused to receive a kiss, she would not be proposed to that coming year, and others believed if she refused it meant she would never marry. Luckily the power of the kissing bough only extended as far as adding to the overall merriment and joy of the season.
Boney: popular nickname for Napoleon Bonaparte
By, Jove: used to express surprise or emphasis. Jove, is another name for Jupiter, the principal Roman God. Jove was used as a euphemism for God or Jesus.
Sources:
https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/inspire-me/blog/blog-posts/twelfth-night-cake/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night_(holiday)
https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/A-Georgian-Christmas/
https://janeausten.co.uk/blogs/uncategorized/twelfth-night
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_bough
https://www.hhhistory.com/2015/12/christmas-kisses-kissing-bough-in-jane.html
https://randombitsoffascination.com/2018/12/22/kissing-boughs-and-mistletoe/
https://janeausten.co.uk/blogs/regency-life-and-times/12-days-of-georgian-christmas
Arthur Wellesley (1769-1852), The 1st Duke of Wellington, Thomas Lawrence 1815/1816. Courtesy of English Heritage
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, is widely regarded as one of the greatest military leaders in history. He was born in 1769 in Dublin, Ireland to the Earl and Countess of Mornington, Garret Wesley and Anne Hill. Arthur’s elder brother, Richard, who inherited their father’s title after his death in 1781, adopted the variation of Wellesley as his surname and Arthur did likewise in 1798.
Arthur Wellesley’s early life showed little sign of distinction or promise. Following his father’s death, at the age of 12, Arthur entered Eton college where he studied for three years. Though he played the violin and was good at arithmetic, it was here where he experienced extreme loneliness which did not help his academics. In 1785, a lack of funds sent Arthur and his mother to live in Brussels, where Arthur attended private classes.
Arthur’s mother was not hopeful he would amount to much, and thought his only hope would be the military. So in 1786 she enrolled him in the French Royal Academy of Equitation. It was here that Arthur started to show promise. He learned French and became a good horseman. In March 1787, through the help of his older brother Richard, Arthur started his illustrious military career as an ensign, and later that same year in October he was assigned as aide-de-camp to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland for ten shillings a day.
Arthur Wellesley started making a name for himself in the military and rose in the ranks. He quickly demonstrated his leadership abilities and tactical acumen, earning a reputation for his meticulous planning and strategic thinking. He gained his first major victories in India, where he successfully defeated the forces of Tipu Sultan and the Marathas, establishing British dominance in the region.
Wellesley’s most renowned achievements, however, came during the Napoleonic Wars. As Napoleon Bonaparte's forces swept across Europe, Wellington was appointed as the commander of the British forces in the Iberian Peninsula. It was here that Arthur Wellesley was made Earl of Wellington (and later Marquess following his victories). Here, he employed a combination of superior tactics, disciplined troops, and local alliances to successfully push back the French. Wellington's most notable victories came at the Battle of Salamanca in 1812 and the Battle of Vitoria in 1813, which effectively ended French control of Spain. Wellington continued to have victory after victory in France through 1814. Following Napoleon’s abdication he was made Duke of Wellington and served as Ambassador to France, participating in the Congress of Vienna.
Wellington's crowning achievement came in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo following Napoleon’s escape from Elba. As Napoleon attempted to make a triumphant return to power, Wellington led a multinational force against him. Despite being outnumbered, Wellington skillfully positioned his troops and coordinated with Prussian forces led by Field Marshal Blücher. The battle ended in a decisive victory for the allied forces, effectively ending Napoleon's reign and securing Wellington's place in history.
Wellington returned to England a war hero and returned his focus to politics. In 1817 he served as Master General of the Ordnance, a military cabinet office under the Prime Minister, and became a prominent fixture in the Tory party. He was also appointed Governor of the Fortress of Plymouth (1819), Commander-in-Chief of the British Army (1827), and Constable of the Tower of London (1827). In 1828, he resigned as Commander-in-Chief and became Prime Minister until 1830 and again from 1834 to 1835. During his time in office, he focused on political and social reforms, including the Catholic Relief Act of 1829, which granted Catholics the right to sit in Parliament. Wellington remained in politics until 1846 when he retired. He passed away in 1852 at the age of 83.
The 1st Duke of Wellington was known by many nicknames. The most well-known being The Iron Duke. Originally the nickname came about because of his immovable resolve in battle and politics, however, it is said to have been used more widely when Wellington installed metal shutters on his house after rioters who were protesting his reforms tried to break into his house. Some of his other nicknames were Nosey or Old Nosey because of his prominent nose, The Beau and The Peer for his fine clothes, and Atty which is short for Arthur.
No matter what you call him, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, is remembered as a military genius, a skilled statesman, and a symbol of British resilience. Wellington's strategic brilliance, unwavering determination, and remarkable leadership continue to inspire generations of military leaders and remain an integral part of his enduring legacy.
Saint Mary Presents Saint Valentine with the Rosary. David Teniers III. 1677. Courtesy of Netherland Institute for Art History
What we know today as Valentine's Day, celebrated annually on February 14th, has a long history which dates back centuries. Its origins can be traced to ancient Rome, where a festival called Lupercalia was held in mid-February. This pagan celebration was dedicated to fertility and marked the beginning of spring. Over time, Lupercalia merged with the Christian holiday of St. Valentine's Day, named after a priest named Valentine who lived in the third century. According to legends, he defied Emperor Claudius II's ban on marriage and secretly wedded couples. Imprisoned for his actions, he is said to have sent a love letter signed "From your Valentine" to a young girl, cementing his place as a patron saint of love.
Valentine's Day gained popularity in the Middle Ages when the concept of courtly love flourished. The English poet, Geoffrey Chaucer is credited with publicly recognizing Valentine’s Day as a romantic holiday when he wrote his 1375 poem “Parliament of Foules”:
For this was sent on Seynt Valentyne’s day
Whan every foul cometh to choose his mate.
Written valentine’s cards started to become popular after Charles, Duke of Orléans wrote a valentine containing verses he wrote to his wife while being held in the Tower of London following the Battle of Agincourt (Hundred Years War) in 1415. References to St. Valentine’s day are rife in verse through the next centuries. In William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Ophelia mentions Saint Valentine’s day in Act IV, scene 5.
Homemade valentine 1801. Artist Unknown. Curtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum
By the 19th century, the exchange of love tokens, including cards, became customary to commemorate St. Valentine’s day. During the Regency period, before cards started to become mass-produced, men and women from all social classes would hand-make cards containing notes and poems and exchange them with each other. These thoughtful cards would range in extravagance from simple paper and ink to expensive card with gilt edges and decorated with lace, flowers, and sometimes even shells. There have been a few examples of valentines from the early 1800’s that are folded into puzzles for the receiver to figure out as they read it.
Flowers, of course, are eternally linked with Valentine’s Day! It was during the Regency period that giving flowers to a valentine on Valentine’s Day became a custom. The Persian poetical language of flowers, wherein each flower holds special meaning, spread through Europe during the 17th and early 18th century as floral dictionaries were published. This language of flowers allowed those giving flowers to their valentines to send messages through the flower or flowers they chose.
Today, thanks to the customs solidified during the Regency Era, Valentine's Day is a global celebration of love and affection, marked by the exchange of gifts, romantic gestures, and expressions of love between partners and loved ones.
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington
https://www.regencyhistory.net/2015/06/arthur-wellesley-1st-duke-of-wellington.html
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Arthur-Wellesley-1st-Duke-of-Wellington
https://www.gov.uk/government/history/past-prime-ministers/arthur-wellesley-1st-duke-of-wellington
https://www.nam.ac.uk/explore/old-nosey-duke-wellington
https://janeausten.co.uk/blogs/arts-and-entertainments/the-advent-of-valentines
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentine's_Day
https://www.history.com/topics/valentines-day/history-of-valentines-day-2
https://donnahatch.com/valentines-day-in-regency-england/
https://daily.jstor.org/the-origins-of-st-valentines-day/
A Crossed Letter to Cassandra Austen from Jane Austen, 1808. Courtesy of the Morgan Library and Museum
Cross-writing, also known as cross-reading or cross-hatched lettering, was a very unique form of letter writing. The technique involves writing a letter, then turning the paper 90 degrees and writing another layer of text over the first. This allowed the writers to maximize use of limited writing materials, such as paper, and save on postage costs.
In a time when paper was a luxury item, individuals sought creative ways to make the most of their writing materials. One very well-known example of this is Jane Austen. Austen frequently used this method in her letters, especially to her sister Cassandra, as seen in the example above. This letter was written over the course of three days and includes inquiries into Cassandra’s strawberry gathering, how Jane is not enjoying Walter Scott’s Marmion, and a comment on the death of a “Mr. Waller” whom Jane doesn’t grieve over, and postulates that his widow doesn’t either.
This letter-writing technique was used widely until the price of paper became more reasonable. But for many the practice became habit and was a pattern in the way they communicated.
Honi Soi Qui Mal Y Pense: The Caricature Shop of G. Humphrey. Theodore Lane 1821. The Met
Gossip Column, Scandal Sheets, Society Column. There were many names given to the journalistic writing featuring a mix of factual information and juicy rumors about the members of the upper class in Regency England. These columns, usually found in newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, and even shop windows, covered a wide range of topics such as balls, fashionable trends, marriages, births, lavish parties, etc. But they would also contain the more scandalous affairs of political intrigue, personal feuds, and romantic entanglements.
Regency society columns were characterized by their witty and satirical tone, offering a mix of social commentary and gossip. Often these columns would be accompanied by caricatures depicting sardonic depictions of the topics. These caricatures became very common as photographs in newsprint were a thing of the future and added visual interest to the readers. While they often depicted social satire, political satire was a common theme in the caricatures of the era and could be created as prints and widely circulated to reach a broader audience.
As a vehicle for political and social propaganda, satirical caricatures became very important in shaping public opinion, challenging authority, and influencing political discourse. A very common subject of these drawings was The Prince Regent. The Regent, who was well known for his extravagant lifestyle and love for fashion, was often depicted as a corpulent figure, dressed in luxurious clothing and surrounded by fawning courtiers. These caricatures were set out to mock his excessive lifestyle and spending, his mistresses, and his lack in political acumen. As seen in the picture below, we see the Prince Regent depicted as a whale in the sea of politics being anchored as a prize by the Tory Party while the Whigs on the left are only left with the “liquor of oblivion.” Meanwhile, the Regent is ignoring all this and is eyeing a mermaid, depicting his current mistress, while ignoring her merman husband and the other mermaid depicting his former mistress.
The Prince of Whales or the Fisherman at Anchor. George Cruikshank 1812. The Met.
While the caricature is very amusing, there is also a very poignant commentary on how The Prince Regent was distracted by his pleasures seeming almost ambivalent to the politics around him. It is also a comment on his change in association from the Whig party to the Tory party, which angered and confused many. These caricatures were an important tool in spreading this discontent, and the Prince Regent never seemed to gain favor with his subjects.
George Cruikshank, unknown artist, 1836. National Portrait Gallery
One of the most prolific caricature artists of the time was George Cruikshank. Cruikshank, born in 1792, was the son of Isaac Cruikshank, who was also a well-known caricaturist in the late 18th century. George started his career as his father’s assistant and apprentice working in his print factory. George and his brother Robert helped their father with etchings, while their mother and sister colored in the finished prints. Between the ages of thirteen and eighteen George had already contributed to or completed 60 separate etchings.
In 1811, at the age of 19, his father Isaac died, leaving George and Robert in charge of financially supporting their family. This is when George started to sell his political and social caricatures to publications, collaborate with others on political pamphlets and books, and eventually started to self-publish collections of his work. In his early thirties, George Cruikshank turned his talents to book illustration. He illustrated an estimated 850 books, but the one he is most well-known for is Oliver Twist. In fact, George illustrated many of Charles Dickens’ works, helping to increase Dicken’s popularity as well as his own.
Oliver Asking for More, George Cruikshank 1837. Yale Center for British Art
Sources:
https://janeaustenslondon.com/tag/regency-theatre/
https://reginajeffers.blog/2023/05/05/how-was-gossip-spread-so-easily-in-the-regency-era/
https://randombitsoffascination.com/2018/05/26/scandal-sheets-and-gossip-columns/
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/393176
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/24/books/jane-austen-prince-regent.html?smid=url-share
https://www.illustrationhistory.org/artists/george-cruikshank
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Cruikshank
https://brierhillgallery.com/george-cruikshank-1792-1878
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossed_letter
https://rosenbach.org/blog/cross-writing-and-cross-reading/
Fashion Plate, “English Fashions in Nov. 1806/Parisian Fashions Nov. 1806” for ‘La Belle Assemblée’”, John Bell 1806. Courtesy of LACMA
Fashion Plate (Parisian Head Dresses for April) for ‘La Belle Assemblée’, John Bell 1812. Courtesy of LACMA
Fashion Plate (Parisian Walking Dress) for ‘La Belle Assemblée’, John Bell 1819. Courtesy of LACMA
The Regency Era was a time of significant change in fashion in England and saw a departure from the ornate styles of the Georgian Era towards a more simplistic and elegant aesthetic. This was greatly influenced by the French Revolution which touted very democratic ideas, and the idea of simplicity in clothing was used to express a need for equality. When this started in the late 1700’s, it strongly influenced attitudes and trends towards clothing.
Women’s dress was defined by the empire waistline, which sat just below the bust and was accompanied by a flowing skirt that fell to the ankle. Dresses were often made from lightweight fabrics like muslin or silk and were adorned with delicate embroidery and lace. These gowns were often worn with a shawl or a spencer jacket, which was a short, fitted jacket that ended at the waist. However, there was a shift amid this era from a more clean, neoclassical esthetic to a more decorated one as embellishments and trims became more elaborate on garments. Delicate lace and embroidery expanded into flounces, scalloped trims, satin puffs, gussets in the sleeves, elaborate tucks, etc.
Paris was the center of the fashion world in Europe, and the French styles and lightweight fabrics were highly coveted. Wealthy English women would often travel to Paris to purchase the latest fashions. This however, could not happen during the Napoleonic Wars. In fact, Napoleon embargoed British textiles, and revived the French lace making craft, forbidding women to purchase lace or textiles made in Britain. Very little information about fashion trends was shared and both countries took different approaches to their designs. The French waistlines remained high, while British waistlines lowered and styles became influenced by gothic and romantic motifs with cumbersome embellishments. But after the war, when travel between the two countries was reestablished, English waistlines went back up. And as most fashion trends keep evolving, in 1818 the waistline started to as well. From 1818 to about 1825, as seen through historic fashion plates, waistlines fell incrementally until they reached the natural waistline.
Fashion plates played a large role in the communication of fashion trends. In simplest terms, fashion plates were illustrations depicting styles of clothing and accessories. These were often printed through etchings, line engravings, or lithograph and then hand colored, crafted to appeal to the most genteel and wealthiest women in society. Ladies’ magazines and periodicals would include them in their pages for their readers. They were highly detailed and would often include information about the fabrics, colors, and accessories used in the design.
Unlike the fast fashion of today, women could not just walk into a dress makers shop and purchase a dress, each dress had to be made by hand. Fashion plates were very helpful in providing women a clear and easy way to communicate to a dressmaker what they wanted in their piece of clothing without having to sit and have a lengthy consultation. The plates changed the way dresses were designed, because rather than the dressmaker designing for the consumer, the consumer now had a large influence on the design.
Fashion seems to always be influenced by the social and political landscape, as well as advances in communication and industry through history. This seems to be true during the Regency period in England. What was seen as modish changed as the political climate in Europe changed during the French revolution. It was then again impacted through the Napoleonic Wars. As regular travel between European countries became more accessible, cultural influences impacted fashion more and more. The broad circulation and production of women’s magazines further allowed for fashion trends to spread more quickly from country to country. All this aided in the evolution of what we now consider Regency Era Fashion.
Sources:
https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/1810-1819/
https://bellatory.com/fashion-industry/Fashion-History-Early-19th-Century-Regency-and-Romantic-Styles
https://fashion-era.com/fashion-history/regency/regency-fashion
https://janeausten.co.uk/blogs/womens-regency-fashion-articles/a-tour-of-regency-fashion-day-and-evening-dress
https://janeaustensworld.com/tag/regency-era-fashion-plates/
No Joke. Etching by Thomas Lord Busby. 1826 London. Courtesy British Museum
Chivalry today is thought to be a term to denote gallantry of men towards women, but originally the word held a different meaning. The word chivalry comes from the French word chevalier, which means horse-soldiery and was used in 11th century Europe to refer to a group of knights serving a king, or in essence the formation of cavalry on the field. The word chevalier was also used to define an aristocratic, noble man who could equip himself with a horse and weapons to enter battle.
Chivalry continued to change in meaning as the Middle Ages progressed. With the end of the Crusades in the 13th century, the popularity of the Knights, or the chevalier, grew. The word chivalry started to become synonymous with the behavior and conduct expected of these elite and noble fighters not only to establish their reputations, but also to quell their behavior. Though sources vary on what specific behaviors were expected, they all agree on the following: bravery in battle, loyalty to God and your country, honesty to thy word, champion against injustice and evil, and the respect of women. However, these rules only applied to interactions in battle or with those in the noble classes. There was little respect given to those who were poor.
With the rise of professional armies in Europe after the Middle Ages, there was a decline in the orders of knights and with this the formal code of chivalry was gone. But the historical ideals of chivalry remained through to the modern eras, and in the 18th and 19th centuries the idea that men should act and behave in honorable, brave, and loyal manners harks back to the pattern established by the Knights of the Middle Ages. Maintaining and defending one’s Honor became a large part of a gentlemen’s behavior in Regency England. So much so, that one became willing to die defending it. This led to dueling, a culture based on a code of honor, much like the code of chivalry.
No Joke. Etching by Thomas Lord Busby. 1826 London. Courtesy British Museum
Dueling in the 18th and 19th century became a popular practice among the men of the noble and upper classes who wanted to prove their bravery and exert their masculinity. Masculinity was intertwined with the virtue of one’s honor, which needed to be maintained and defended. A gentlemen’s honor was proved by their behavior towards high-born ladies, as well as in their civil behavior with other honorable men. So, when that honor was threatened, a gentlemen demanded a duel in order to gain satisfaction to restore his honor by being willing to lay down his life for it.
Duels were often fought over trivial matters, such as insults or perceived slights, and were sometimes even initiated by third parties on behalf of the disputants. They were occasionally even fought over a woman, either for retribution for harming her reputation or because the dispute between the men was over a woman’s affection. Despite being illegal, dueling was widely accepted in society, and many prominent figures, including politicians and military officers, participated in the practice.
The rules of dueling were strictly observed, and a number of codes and regulations were established to ensure fairness and safety. For example, duels were usually fought at dawn to minimize the risk of interference, and if using pistols the participants would often take several paces away from each other before turning and firing. Seconds, who acted as witnesses and advisors to the participants, were also present to ensure the rules were followed and to help settle the dispute peacefully if possible.
However, despite the rules and regulations, dueling was a dangerous and often deadly practice. Many people were seriously injured or killed in duels, and the practice was increasingly criticized by those who saw it as barbaric and unnecessary. In 1829, dueling was finally made illegal in Great Britain, although it continued to be practiced in other countries. Today, dueling is largely viewed as a relic of the past, but it continues to fascinate and intrigue people as a symbol of a bygone era of chivalry and honor.
Reticule: a woman’s drawstring hand bag or purse
Blacksmith’s Cottage: blacksmiths in Gretna Green would perform marriages in their cottages
Fisticuffs: an impromptu fist fight
Sixpence: a coin equal to six pennies or half a shilling
Over the anvil: to seal the marriage, the blacksmith would bring down his hammer on the anvil
Christian name: one’s first given name; first names were very rarely used and it was seen as
improper or too familiar to use if not given permission to do so
Sources:
https://www.history.com/news/chivalry-knights-middle-ages
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight
https://www.britannica.com/topic/chivalry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chivalry
https://janeaustensworld.com/tag/regency-code-of-honor/
https://janeausten.co.uk/blogs/regency-history/to-punish-or-defend-the-regency-duel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duel
Roman Baths and Abbey, IV, Bath, England. Photochrome print reproduction. ca 1890 and ca 1900. Courtesy of Library of Congress.
Bath, England is a city located in the southwest of the country and is famous for its Roman baths and stunning Georgian architecture. The city has a rich history that dates back to Roman times. The Romans built the first elaborate buildings for public bathing around 60 AD for wealthy Romans seeking to indulge in the naturally occurring hot springs that could be found there. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the city fell into disrepair, but it was revived in the 17th century when it became fashionable for the wealthy to visit Bath to 'take the waters.' In other words, they believed the water from the hot springs could cure whatever was ailing them.
The Royal Crescent in Bath. Thomas Malton 1780. Public Domain.
During the Georgian era, Bath underwent a significant transformation. Princess Anne visited Bath frequently, and continued to do so even after becoming queen. She was attempting to ease her discomfort as she suffered from gout. Her visits brought other royal and illustrious guests to the city. This, along with the rise of the middle class, led to a building boom in Bath, with many elegant Georgian townhouses, public buildings, and landmarks being constructed. The city's most famous architect, John Wood the Elder, was responsible for much of this development, including the iconic Royal Crescent, a row of 30 terraced homes laid out in a wide curve, rather than along a traditional straight avenue.
As the city grew, it became a center for socializing and entertainment, attracting the wealthiest and most influential people in society. For much of the 18th and early 19th centuries it was the center of society, second only to London. Bath's Assembly Rooms, which opened in 1771, became a hub for high society, hosting concerts, balls, and other events. Visitors to Bath could also enjoy the theater, which was frequented by many famous actors of the time.
Today, Bath remains a popular tourist destination, attracting millions of visitors annually. In fact, that number is over six million each year! Though visitors can still visit the roman baths, they cannot swim in them because the water is unsafe to enter, but there are other places to partake of the mineral hot springs. Both the remains of the Roman architecture and the Georgian era re-development have been well preserved. In 1987 Bath became a UNESCO World Heritage Site, solidifying its cultural and historical significance.
Illustration in Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen, 1896. Illustrated by Hugh Thomson. Image courtesy of National Library of Poland
By the beginning of the 19th century in England, the etiquette surrounding social calls were deeply engrained in society. But as someone reading about the rules surrounding this social custom it can be confusing to understand. Here are some of the basic rules and etiquette of making a social visit:
Outside of the rules surrounding the actual social call, there were also social norms concerning one’s behavior, dress, and what the conversation should be during the visits. If one was not careful or was not familiar with the etiquette involved it would be very easy to make a hapless faux pas!
Setting her cap at: to pursue someone romantically, usually with an eye towards marriage
“Not at home”: a phrase used when the household was not receiving visitors
Pump rooms: a building adjacent to the Roman Baths, which water is pumped from for visitors to drink
Take the waters: drinking the warm mineral spring water, thought to make one healthy
Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/place/Bath-England
https://localhistories.org/a-history-of-bath/
https://britainsbestguides.org/blogs/bath-the-favourite-city-of-queen-anne/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site
https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/428/
https://www.regencyhistory.net/2022/05/morning-calls-in-regency-regency.html
https://austenised.blogspot.com/2011/05/rules-and-etiquette-of-regency-society.html
https://janeausten.co.uk/blogs/customs-and-manners/paying-social-calls
https://englishhistoryauthors.blogspot.com/2013/08/morning-calls-and-formal-visits.html
Smuggling Out, or Starting for Gretna Green. Etching print. Rowlandson, T; Schütz, HT. 1798. Courtesy of the MET
Elopements or clandestine marriages have been around for centuries. In regency England, these marriages all had one destination: Gretna Green in Scotland.
Lord Hardwicke’s Marriage Act of 1753, prevented any young person in Britan from entering matrimony under the age of 21 without the permission of their parents. However, Scotland did not change their law and boys as young as 14 and girls as young as 12 could wed without parental consent as long as they declared themselves before two witnesses.
With the construction of a toll road into the southern Scottish village of Graitney (Gretna) in the 1770’s, Gretna Green became the first easily reachable village over the Scottish border for couples to flee to in order to marry quickly and without the consent of parents. Scottish law also allowed anyone to perform marriages. The most legendary of these were the blacksmiths of the village. They were referred to as “anvil priests” and were said to “forge” the links of love in their shops. Hence the phrase “married over the anvil” became a popular term of the day to describe such unions.
Gretna Green. Laurie & Whittle c. 1795-1805. London. Courtesy of the British Museum
Gretna Green was a sensational place in Regency society. It became the location of elopements and clandestine marriages, and a topic for scandal among society. In 1818, to get from London to Gretna Green took an average of 4 days by mail coach or carriage and required frequent stops to rest horses and to spend nights at inns. The reputations of Regency young women were extremely brittle. Their behavior and decorum were very highly monitored and just one small slip-up could damage their reputation beyond repair. Fleeing, unchaperoned with a young man not related to her, was enough to ostracize her from fashionable social circles for good. You can imagine what staying a night unaccompanied at an inn with a man—even if the young people stayed in separate rooms—would do to her reputation.
In the case of elopement, any hope of saving a wealthy young lady’s fortune from belonging completely to her husband after she wed was up to her father, a male relative, or a male guardian figure. Once an elopement attempt was learned of, this male advocate could only hope to intercept the couple before the marriage took place. If he succeeded, he would most likely not be able to save the young lady’s reputation, but he could negotiate a marriage contract on her behalf, making careful stipulations that enabled her to retain at least part of her fortune after the marriage took place. If the young lady married before such a contract was negotiated, she, any children from the marriage, and her fortune would, by law, become her husband’s property.
As you can imagine, elopements of this nature were often utilized by fortune-hunters and rogues in order to gain a vast fortune. For example, handsome, charming, young gentlemen, looking to climb the social ladder, or in over their head’s financially, could simply convince a naïve heiress under the age of 21 of his love and devotion, persuade her of the necessity of eloping with him to Gretna Green, and voila! Financial problems solved. Not so for the young lady, her problems were just getting started. Without a father or other male relative to intercede and negotiate a marriage contract on her behalf, she had no way of retaining ownership of her fortune. And even if she did discover her intended’s true motives for marrying her before the deed was done, the act of eloping would have already damaged her reputation beyond repair. The lesser of the two evils was therefore to return to society a married woman and try to make the best of the rest of her life.
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gretna_Green
https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofScotland/Gretna-Green/
https://janeaustensworld.com/2015/10/31/oh-what-a-scandal-a-gretna-green-elopement-marriage-and-divorce/
https://blogs.ancestry.com.au/ancestry/2011/02/14/fame-and-scandal-amongst-a-century-of-runaway-weddings/
https://donnahatch.com/regency-pre-nuptial-agreements-the-marriage-agreement/
St. James Street. James McNeill Whistler 1878. Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Art.
St. James Street is a well known street located in central London. It runs between Piccadilly and St. James Palace, one of the Royal palaces. St. James Street was famously the heart of fashionable London for the men in the ton. This is where they would keep their rooms, their mistresses, and buy their clothing. It was also the location for the most popular of the Gentlemen’s clubs of the day. These clubs were members-only establishments and membership was exclusive and limited to men in the upper echelons of society. The establishments offered its members a place to take meals, have a drink, read in the library, and gamble.
Today, St. James’s is still referred to as “clubland” as there are still many members-only clubs running there today.
White’s in Old and New London: Volume 4 by Edward Walford (London, 1878). British History Online [accessed 20 February 2023].
White’s opened its doors in 1778 on St. James St.. It is the oldest and most exclusive gentleman's club in the world. White’s was a place where gentlemen of the aristocracy and upper classes gathered to socialize and discuss politics. The club was so popular that in the late 18th century, membership had to be limited due to overcrowding. It also played an important role in London's social scene, as it often hosted balls and other social gatherings.
White's was most known for its extravagant gambling, and many members of the ton spent large amounts of money there. Much of the gambling was played at cards, but any of White’s members could bet or wager on anything at any time, as long as it was written down in the club’s infamous betting book. The bets in the book were available for all to look at and gossip about. The loser was required to pay the winner promptly or their membership at White’s would be revoked. Most of the bets were made on significant events happening at the time, but some were extremely silly and trivial. There were bets made about the defeat of Napoleon, on marriages, and children, and even on things such as which raindrop would reach the bottom of a windowpane first!
White’s has a long and illustrious history and has been frequented by many of the most powerful and influential figures in British history. The Prince of Wales, Charles II, George II, George III, and the Duke of Wellington all held memberships there during their lives. Over the centuries, White’s has been renowned for its extravagant dinners and gambling parties. It’s reputation as a playground for the rich and famous has only grown over time.
Churlish prig: someone who is sullen or irritable.
Holly and ivy: common evergreens displayed in homes during Christmas; holly was thought to be masculine, while ivy to be feminine, giving stability to the home. “The Holly and the Ivy” is also the title for a well-known English Christmas song.
Yule Log: a large log brought into the home on Christmas Eve and burned for the 12 days of Christmas until the Epiphany on January 6th. It is to represent the sun during the short days of winter solstice.
Sources:
https://londonhistorians.wordpress.com/2014/06/05/gambling-in-londons-most-ruinous-gentlemens-clubs/
https://nineteenteen.blogspot.com/2011/01/where-boys-are-betting-at-whites.html
https://londonist.com/london/drink/the-curious-world-of-london-s-gentlemen-s-clubs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%27s
https://janeaustenslondon.com/2013/05/06/henry-at-whites-oh-what-a-henry/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_James%27s_Street
http://www.thelondonliferpg.com/forums/index.php?/forum/76-st-james-street/
Balls held a significant role in the social lives of the middle and upper classes in the Regency Era. It was there that positions of power were fought for, standings in society determined, and eligibility in the marriage mart declared. Balls were held both publicly and privately, in public assembly rooms where tickets or vouchers could be purchased, or in private homes where invitations were sent. For a ball to be held in a private home, the host would need to be wealthy in order to provide the space, the staff to see to the guests, the musicians to play, as well as the food to feed their guests since balls traditionally included a sit-down supper.
Balls were considered the most formal occasions, allowing the guests to wear their finest gowns, clothing, jewelry, and finery. Men typically wore knee breeches, a shirt, waistcoat, tail coat, silk stockings, and an intricately tied cravat. White leather gloves, canes, pocket watches, watch fobs, and handkerchiefs were also common accessories worn by gentlemen. Ladies’ dresses varied widely in color and trimmings, but the majority of dresses at that time were of the same empire waist silhouette. Younger, unmarried girls tended to dress in gowns lighter in color and married and older women in darker colors. Ball gowns were always more embellished than everyday dresses, with beads, lace, and even feathers. Women would accessorize with ribbons or flowers in their hair and the truly daring would sport a turban or a headdress festooned with feathers. Long white leather elbow-length gloves would be worn at all times throughout the ball, except when eating. Other accessories included jewelry, fans, and reticules. And of course, when the ball was a masquerade, the dress varied greatly as it did for the characters in our story!
Dressed in their finest, those of marriageable age utilized balls to their advantage. These were one of only a few places courting couples could be alone without having a chaperon right next to them at all times. Though a ballroom was still carefully regulated by etiquette, dancing afforded couples opportunities of physical touch, as well as flirtation and conversation. These were also occasions for intentions to be declared. At a private ball, when an unmarried gentleman asked a young lady to dance more than once, he was indicating a particular interest in her and was setting expectations that he was courting her. With so much that could and would happen at a ball, there is no wonder as to why they were looked forward to with so much anticipation.
*To learn more about Regency Balls, check out the video below. It is a wonderful recreation of a Regency ball and goes into great detail!
“It is always incomprehensible to a man that a woman should ever refuse an offer of marriage. A man always imagines a woman to be ready for anybody who asks her.”
- Emma, by Jane Austen
Traditionally the institution of marriage in England for the middle and upper classes was primarily an arrangement to produce heirs and protect fortunes and estates. Because primogeniture, or the passing of estates to the eldest son, was the law, daughters were expected to “marry well,” or to secure their own financial future through marriage. Once married, a woman surrendered all her property and finances over to her husband. In essence, the husband owned everything, including his wife and any future children.
While this did create an imbalance of power in marriage, during the 18th century and the age of Enlightenment the concept of respect for the individual created the idea of a marriage with mutual respect between partners. In Regency England, the concept of a companionate marriage, or one based on affection and friendship increased in popularity. This was a move from a patriarchal or hierarchal marriage to a marriage where the husband and wife were partners and best friends. The Regency Era became a time where looking for love in marriage was the ideal.
Lead the dances: determine the figures, steps and music to be danced
The first set: the opening dances of the ball
Family wing: the area of a large country house or mansion where the family resided
Sources:
https://www.regencyhistory.net/2021/01/how-to-behave-in-regency-ballroom.html
https://www.cdrochester.org/flyers/WomensBallClothing2008.pdf
https://www.cdrochester.org/flyers/MensBallClothing2008.pdf
https://randombitsoffascination.com/2015/03/10/private-regency-ball/
https://asteptogold.com/regency-era-balls-and-dancing-today/
https://thebeaumonde.com/main/courting-and-marriage-in-the-regency-by-cheryl-bolen/
https://byuprideandprejudice.wordpress.com/2014/01/28/courtship-and-marriage-in-the-regency-period/
https://home.heinonline.org/blog/2021/08/a-decent-proposal-marriage-in-regency-england/
https://englishhistoryauthors.blogspot.com/2016/12/after-wedding-comes-marriage-regency.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6ZnIOJuhUw
“The Weddings”, from The Vicar of Wakefield by Oliver Goldsmith. Art: Thomas Rowland 1817. Courtesy of TheMet
Regency Era weddings in England were rife with traditions. Women were not able to own property in that time, so when a woman married, everything she brought with her into a marriage became the property of her husband. Her fiancé and her guardian, usually her father, would negotiate a marriage contract or settlement. This contract would state what her dowry would be, or the amount of money set aside as her “portion” that would be given to her husband on their marriage. The contract also would include reached negotiations on how much “pin money” or annual allowance the wife would receive for her personal needs, details regarding her finances in the event of her husband’s death, and sometimes details regarding financial provisions for any future children; like dowry portions for daughters or inheritances for sons.
Once financial settlements were reached preparations for the wedding commenced. First, the couple needed to ensure they attained either a marriage license, or had their banns read in church. If they chose to have their banns read, this needed to occur during services three Sundays in a row and they could get married on that third Sunday. If they didn’t want to wait two weeks for the banns to be read, they could purchase a special license, but still had to be married in their home parish. A Special License could be obtained for a more substantial fee from the Archbishop of Canterbury in London if the couple wished to get married quickly and outside of a church, but this option obviously was only available to the very wealthy.
The bride also needed to think about her trousseau. A bridal trousseau was a collection of clothing and accessories that a bride assembled to prepare for her wedding and her new role as a wife. Sometime a trousseau also included household linens and treasured belongings such as jewelry. Many items were collected through her life, but others, like the clothing, were purchased in the weeks leading up to her wedding. These would include undergarments, stockings, shoes, morning dresses, afternoon dresses, walking dresses, ball gowns, riding habits, carriage/traveling dresses, cloaks, shawls, gloves, pelisses, hats, bonnets, and of course her wedding dress. Not all regency brides had a special dress made for their wedding, but if the bride was wealthy the odds were that she did. Many brides did wear white, but only because that was a popular color for evening gowns. The idea was to have an elegant dress in a pale color made for her wedding gown, which could be worn again. To have a dress made of white Indian Muslin would have been seen as the height of gentility as the fine fabric was quite a luxury and only the most discerning would dare to wear it as it required much care if soiled.
The ceremony itself almost always took place during the morning in the Parish church of either the bride or groom. The marriage vows came directly from The Book of Common Prayer, and were required to be used to make the marriage legally and spiritually binding. After the vows were made, communion was administered, and then the clergyman performing the ceremony would take the opportunity to offer a sermon, read scripture, and say prayers. The couple would then sign the registry and the ceremony would be over. There is no part in The Book of Common Prayer allowing for a kiss or introducing the newly married couple to the audience.
Whether it was a wedding breakfast, bridal feast, or banquet, there was almost always a celebration following the ceremony which involved food, wince, entertainment and cake. Cake is a long-standing tradition for celebrating weddings, and cutting it and sharing it with guests would always be included as part of the festivities. Entertainment could include a piano player, a small orchestral group, or even a large choral group. If the celebrations were planned to last for a while, dancing would also be involved. Weddings of people of importance or wealth sometime included formal balls, providing their guests with more formal entertainment. But no matter the entertainment or the social class of the bride and groom, there was almost always a toast to the happy couple wishing them joy and good fortune for their future.
Journal des Dames et des Modes, Costumes Parisiens. Louis Marie Lanté 1835. Courtesy of RijksMuseum.
Masquerade balls were balls where attendees would wear costumes with masks. In the 15th century, Masquerade balls originally were part of the celebration of Carnival, a Catholic celebration occurring before Lent. By the 17th and 18th centuries the popularity of these masked balls became popular throughout Europe and by the early 18th century these fashionable social events landed in England. It heightened the excitement of a ball to allow the attendees a night to be someone else and to possibly hide their identity.
Costumes for these events varied. A simple costume was called a domino, which consisted of a black mask, covering either half or the entire face, and was sometimes accompanied by a black cloak or shawl. Dominos could be worn over the wearers regular ball attire and did not require much forethought or planning.
On the other side of the costume spectrum, some balls could have themes with elaborate costumes required of its guests. These costumes could be worn with or without a mask. Occasions such as this would allow for imaginations to fly and for gentlemen to dress as ladies, or for ladies to dress as gentlemen, or for either to dress as animals, queens, kings, gods, goddesses, or as Julianna discussed in her letter, fairies. Masquerades were very festive affairs and a great way to bring people together.
To see a live Regency Era ball reenactment, watch here:
Llangynwyd Castle: a ruined castle in southeast Wales
Tylwyth Teg: the most common Welsh term for fairies
Acts of Union: Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, passed during the reign of Henry VIII to make Wales part of the Kingdom of England
Tête-á-tête: a private conversation between two people
Spenser’s The Faerie Queene: An English epic poem by Edmund Spenser published in 1590 (books 1-3), and then again in 1596 (adding books 4-6)
For a brief introduction of Spenser’s The Faerie Queene given by Dr. Jonathon McGovern watch here:
Sources:
http://sandiejames.blogspot.com/2012/04/bridal-trousseau.html
https://jasna.org/publications-2/persuasions-online/vol36no1/bailey/
https://www.victoriamag.com/regency-weddings-julie-klassen/
https://www.eskimo.com/~lhowell/bcp1662/occasion/marriage.html
https://sharonlathanauthor.com/regency-marriage-the-legalities/
https://www.regencyhistory.net/2018/10/banns-licences-and-hardwickes-marriage.html
https://www.heathermollauthor.com/post/regency-masquerade
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masquerade_ball
Chain Pier at Brighton. John Bruce c. 1830. Courtesy of Yale Center for British Art.
When the rich or famous start to like something, other’s follow. And so it was back in Regency times with Brighton, a fishing town on the Sussex coast, South of London. In 1771 the Duke of Cumberland, brother to King George III started coming to Brighton, which had started becoming a popular destination to partake in the medicinal benefits of swimming in and drinking sea water, toted by many doctors. In 1783, his nephew, the Prince of Wales visited him there. The Prince, who later was Prince Regent, then King, continued to visit Brighton, adding to the allure of the seaside location and its popularity.
Brighton offered its visitors many of the same delights and entertainments they could find in London, such as ballrooms and card rooms. But it also offered them the delight of sea bathing.
Sea bathing for women was a challenge for preserving their modesty. In order to allow women to sea bathe, a bathing machine was invented in the early 1700’s by Benjamin Beale. Imagine a covered carriage, pulled either by a horse or a bathing woman called a “dipper” into the water. Inside the carriage the women was allowed privacy to change her clothing into a bathing costume, like a cotton or muslin shift. When the cart was pulled deep enough into the water, the side facing the sea was opened with concealing canopies and stairs that let down into the water. This allowed the woman to step into the water with the help of her bathing woman and without anyone seeing her immodest attire.
The Pavilion at Brighton. S. Holland. 1818. Courtesy of Society of Brighton Print Collectors
Perspective View of the Steyne Front. James Tingle. 1838. Courtesy of The Royal Collection Trust.
The Prince of Wales was so enamored with Brighton that he even built his own residence there. In 1786 he leased an old farmhouse and established his long-time companion, Maria Fitzherbert there. Then in 1787 he purchased the house and surrounding land and commissioned architect Henry Holland to expand the house considerably to include a central rotunda in his very neo-classical style. The structure became known as the Marine Pavilion. In 1801, the Prince decided to enlarge his Brighton residence once again and enlisted the help of Peter Fredrick Robinson, a colleague of Holland’s, to expand the building to include a new dining room and conservatory.
In 1811, The Prince of Wales became the Prince Regent when his father, George III was deemed incapable of acting as monarch. The Marine Pavilion still didn’t meet the Prince Regent’s needs as a location for large social events. Consequently, in 1815, Henry Nash was commissioned to transform the modest villa into an opulent palace. The construction took many years, but Nash was able to transform the neo-classical Marine Pavilion into the very Indo-Islamic Royal Pavilion that we can still see today. The palace is very striking with minarets, domes, and pinnacles adorning the starkly white exterior. To this day it remains as a popular tourist destination as well as a popular wedding venue.
Archangel Michael Defeats Satan. Guido Reni c. 1635. Altarpiece. Image courtesy of Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini.
In Medieval England, the changing of summer to fall was marked by Michaelmas, and signaled the need to finish the harvest and prepare for the cold season and shorter days ahead. It is traditionally celebrated on September 29th by Christian religions. They mark the occasion with a feast, honoring St. Michael and more generally all angels. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, it is a celebration on November 8th honoring all archangels. St. Michael is venerated as the greatest of all angels in Christian tradition, especially because he was the one that defeated Satan in the War in Heaven.
The biggest traditions for a Michaelmas meal were to have a goose, blackberries, and Bannock. Michaelmas was also known as “Goose Day” and there are even Goose Fairs held today that started as geese and animal trade events, many of which are now annual funfairs. It is said the tradition of eating a goose on Michaelmas started when Queen Elizabeth heard about the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 while she was eating goose and vowed to always eat it on Michaelmas. Others followed her lead. It is said that eating goose on Michaelmas will protect you from financial struggles in the coming year; “Eat goose on Michaelmas Day, Want not for money all the year.”
The tradition of eating blackberries came from the story of the Archangel Michael defeating Satan. Lore holds that when Satan fell from heaven, he became the devil and fell straight onto a blackberry bush, cursing the fruit and making them unsafe to eat. British folklore states that Michaelmas is the last day it is safe to pick blackberries because that is the day Lucifer fell from the skies.
Traditionally the blackberries were eaten in a pie, but sometimes they are put in Bannock. Bannock is a traditional Michaelmas food that came from Scotland. It is an unleavened, flat quick-bread made of a blend of different flours, and can be either sweet or savory. The bread was eaten in remembrance of absent friends or those who have passed away and was given a special blessing at an early morning mass before being given away to the poor.
Beethoven’s Piano Sonata No. 14: also known as Moonlight Sonata, is his most popular piano composition and was even popular in his own day
Chatsworth in Derbyshire: a stately country home; the seat of the Duke of Devonshire, owned by the Cavendish family since 1549.
House of Lords: the upper house of Parliament of the United Kingdom; also known as the House of Peers. Membership is by appointment, heredity, or official function.
Verdigris Green: verdigris refers to a blue-green pigment, such as the patina on copper.
Maladroit: ineffective or clumsy
Companionate Marriage: a marriage based on mutual consent and equality for companionship.
Sources:
https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Michaelmas/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michaelmas
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/michaelmas-the-day-the-devil-spit-on-your-blackberries
https://janeausten.co.uk/blogs/customs-and-manners/seabathing-georgian-style
https://janeaustensworld.com/tag/regency-sea-bathing/
https://brightonmuseums.org.uk/visit/royal-pavilion-garden/our-history/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brighton
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Pavilion
Scan of “Barbara Allan” pg. 142 from Forget Me Not Songster, 1840. New York: Nafis & Cornish. Courtesy Internet Archive.
A tavern song, sea shanty, work song, war song, love ballad, or lullaby, are all examples of folk songs. Folk songs were passed down from generation to generation orally, told a story, and got their name because they were created by ordinary people or folk, not the renowned and educated composers and musicians of the time. Historical records show British folk music was around as early as the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons in the 5th century, and it is still around today.
Folk songs may not have been the classical or “proper” music of the time, but the popularity of it had been rising for some time. By nature, a folk song being an oral tradition, it would take time for popularity to spread. But with the invention of the printing press and increasing use of print materials in the 16th and 17th centuries, collections of folk songs were being produced, making them available to all classes of society, not just the “folk.” And in the 18th century, with the romantic movement and the rise in the popularity of poetry, there were many ballads written and sung. By the early 19th century, folk music was popular and widespread and was sung and danced to in taverns and ballrooms and everywhere in between.
The French Quarter today is the most well-known part of the city of New Orleans, Louisiana and attracts tourists to its lively night life and distinctive architecture. It is a neighborhood located on the banks of the Mississippi River and is the oldest in a city that was founded by the French in 1718. Following the Seven Year’s War, the colony of Louisiana was ceded to the Spanish in 1763 and was under their government for forty years until they returned it to the French shortly before the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereby making Louisiana part of the United States. The French Quarter became the hub of New Orleans’s business and commerce.
With the French and Spanish colonization of Louisiana, a rich and racially diverse culture emerged. When the French first colonized, they imported slaves from West Africa to work the land for them, just as they had done when they colonized in the Caribbean Islands. And of course, there were already indigenous tribes that were living there when the land was colonized. Between 1791 and 1810 New Orleans welcomed many refuges, both white and free people of color, from the Haitian Revolution, and many of them brought their own slaves with them. Because of all of this a new ethnic group emerged, termed Creoles. These individuals descend from the inhabitants of colonial Louisiana before it became part of the US. This term was originally used by the French to distinguish between those who were born in Louisiana vs elsewhere and was not meant to be a racial label, though many Creoles are of mixed race. Ethnically their ancestry is predominantly French, West African, Spanish and Native American.
Free woman of color with quadroon daughter. Late 18th-century collage painting, New Orleans. Public Domain
The term “free people of color,” referred to a large third class of individuals that emerged in Louisiana. Free people of color were people of mixed African, European, and Native American descent, but it also referred to individuals who were of black African descent who were born free. When the French and Spanish settled the colony, the men frequently took slaves and native women as mistresses or as common-law wives and later when more white Europeans settled there, the men would enter into a plaçage, or a civil union with a woman of mixed race. The woman was not legally a wife, but their union was termed a “left-handed” marriage. The unions were negotiated and had contracts where sometimes property and money were settled on the woman or any children resulting in the union.
Quadroon Balls were luxurious social events held to encourage wealthy white men to form a plaçage with a mixed-race woman or free woman of color. Many tour companies today in New Orleans will point out places where Quadroon Balls were held in the French Quarter and are used as a way to enrich their dialogue of the city’s history. Many historians, however, have conclude based on knowledge and lack of evidence, that Quadroon Balls are a myth. Free women of color were often an educated, religious, and wealthy group, who owned land, businesses, and even their own slaves. For many, a plaçage was not a desirable union.
The term quadroon meant a person with one white parent and one parent of mixed-race, so legally would be recognized as one-fourth black. Today the term is extremely offensive and racist, in the same way that slaves not being classified as humans on a bill of sale is. The term is used in our letters, solely because it was a term used in the era our story takes place, and as such, provides an opportunity to educate and shed light on the complex and inhumane ways people of color, and women of color particularly, have been oppressed throughout history.
See our Adelaide Magnolia music playlist here:
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL9kle-m0d5i79DVUzTobRu_TYglVKPAPN
Lake Windermere: The largest natural lake in England in the Lake District National Park
Tarn Hows: A small mountain lake west of Lake Windermere
Cambridge: The world’s third oldest university, located in Cambridge, England
Old Nosey: A nickname for the Duke of Wellington
Under a Husband’s Protection: During this period wives were considered property of their husbands, so here Liam is referring to Julianna being safe from a man wanting her for her fortune because a husband will have control of her finances.
Deadlocks: a standstill or period of inaction
Posthaste: with immediacy or great speed
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_folk_music#Early_19th_century
https://janeaustensworld.com/tag/regency-music/
https://donnahatch.com/history-of-british-folk-music/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Quarter
https://www.fqmd.org/history-of-french-quarter/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_people_of_color
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age
https://afropunk.com/2016/10/know-your-black-history-deconstructing-the-quadroon-ball/
https://www.wwno.org/podcast/tripod-new-orleans-at-300/2016-09-22/tripod-mythbusters-quadroon-balls-and-placage
Portrait of Jane Austen. Cassandra Austen 1810. Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery
Born 16 December 1775 in Hampshire England, Jane Austen is a world-famous author, known for her completed six novels. These novels center around the lives of the landed gentry and comment on the quests females pursue to gain favorable reputations in society in order to gain advantageous marriages and secure their safety and security. Her novels are a bit satirical and witty and contain her commentary and views on society.
During her lifetime, Jane Austen, did not receive much fame as she published anonymously. Though her books did receive some acclaim, her fame rose over time. Her first published novel was Sense and Sensibility (1811), a story of Elinor and Marianne Dashwood as they come of age and maneuver society after the death of their father, when they are removed from the only home and lifestyle they have ever known. Then two years later Jane publishes Pride and Prejudice (1813), which follows the protagonist Elizabeth Bennett as she learns of the consequences of judging too quickly and looking beyond the superficial. Austen’s third published novel was Mansfield Park (1814), about Fanny Price. Coming from a modest and overburdened home, Fanny is sent to live with her wealthy aunt and uncle. The novel is about her coming of age. This novel explores topics such as religion and slavery that Jane had not touched on in her previous works. Her fourth novel to be published was Emma (1816), which is the story of a young, rich, beautiful, spoiled, and prideful heroine who learns to curb her hubris through social and romantic misunderstandings.
These four novels were published during Austen’s lifetime, but there are two that were published posthumously. Northanger Abbey (1818) is a satire on gothic novels and follows young and naïve Catherine Morland on her visit to Northanger Abbey. The last if Austen’s completed novels to be published was Persuasion (1818). Persuasion is the story of Anne Elliot, who at 27, is Austen’s oldest and most mature heroine. It is the story of Anne, who after being persuaded to break an engagement at age 20, is then given a second chance seven years later with the same man.
Austen passed away 18 July 1817 of a long-fought illness, later thought to have been Addison’s disease or Hodgkin’s lymphoma. She died much too young at the age of 41. She never married, but maintained a very close relationship with her sister Cassandra. It is through her letters with Cassandra that we know what we do of her life.
To this day, Jane Austen is a household literary name. Her novels have been made into movies, theatrical plays, inspired many literary essays, and have been republished the years over, never going out of print. It’s safe to say that “The Lady” has made a very huge impact on the world.
Battle of New Orleans. Jean Hyacinthe de Laclotte 1815. Courtesy of the New Orleans Museum of Art.
During the Napoleonic wars, Britain’s war with France, there were many trade restrictions placed on the United States. The U.S. tried to stay neutral in their commercial trade efforts, but neither foreign nation could accept this and tensions built and started to punish US ships that tried to engage in trade. At the same time, there was an emergence of pro-French politicians emerging in U.S. politics, and there were claims that the British were riling up discontent among the Native Americans. In addition, there were instances of British impressment, whereby they would capture American ships at sea and then force the ships sailors into military or naval service, some of which were U.S. citizens. With all of these mounting tensions, on June 18, 1812, President James Madison signed a declaration of war against Great Britain.
In 1812, the British Government was now engaged in two wars, separated by an ocean. This caused a lack in their resources, supplies, men, and naval presence. They relied heavily on their military and militia presence in British occupied Canada as well as any Native American allies. The Americans were also unprepared, thinking that militias would quickly take control of lower Canada, then quickly end the conflict through negotiations. But there was little incentive for militia engagement; it paid poorly, and the men were trained poorly. Men did not want to have to leave their home states to fights and many did not support the war efforts.
Despite this inauspicious beginning, the war of 1812, was fought for almost three more years. Battles were fought in Canada, Coastal Maine, The Chesapeake, The Old Northwest (Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin) and the Old South (Alabama, Louisiana, Georgia, and Mississippi).
The Battle of New Orleans: The final battle fought in the War of 1812
Simpleton: a foolish or gullible person
Dalliance: a brief of casual romantic relationship
2nd Brigade: naval regiment
Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel James Malcolm: Scottish officer of the British Royal Marines. Served in the American Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic Wars, and in the War of 1812.
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen#Chawton
https://www.janeausten.org/jane-austen-biography.php
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans
https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/war-of-1812-faqs
https://www.history.com/topics/war-of-1812/battle-of-new-orleans
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_1812#Treaty_of_Ghent
https://www.britannica.com/event/War-of-1812/War
The Battle of Waterloo: General Advance of the British Lines. 1816. Denis Dighton. Courtesy of the Royal Collection
“My heart is broken by the terrible loss I have sustained in my old friends and companions and my poor soldiers. Believe me, nothing except a battle lost can be half so melancholy as a battle won.”
- Duke of Wellington
In 1815, war had ravaged through Europe for over two decades as France fought to expand its empire. In March of that year, Napoleon, the imprisoned French Emperor, escaped capture on the island of Elba and returned to France. Gaining an army of followers as he made his way to Paris, Luis XVIII, who had been reinstated as King of France, fled the city, allowing Napoleon to arrive in Paris and take charge, organize his troops, and mount his offensive against the allied forces of Europe.
On March 25 1815, after the news of Napoleon’s escape, a treaty was signed between Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria that they would maintain 150,000 troops in the field until Napoleon could be defeated once again. By the time Napoleon entered the southern Netherlands (modern day Belgium) on June 15, the Allied armies had formed themselves into two coalitions, the Prussian forces led by Field Marshal Gebhard von Blucher and the Anglo-Allied forces led by Field Marshal the Duke of Wellington. However, by this point the French had forced the two allied armies apart, which was part of Napoleon’s strategy, weakening their position. Both Blucher and Wellington’s forces were attacked by French forces, Blucher’s was defeated, suffered great losses, and retreated. Wellington and his troops were able to hold off the attack, but were also forced to retreat or risk further outmaneuvering. Wellington fell back towards the village of Waterloo.
Waterloo then became the site where the French converged once again with Allied forces. On June 18, the Prussians still had not arrived near Waterloo, but having received intelligence that they were on their way, Wellington decided that his forces would stand and fight. Without knowledge of the Prussian army’s impending arrival, Napoleon held off his offensive attack on Wellington until midday. The attack of the French was fierce and the battle was hard, but due to Wellington’s position on a high ridge and the mid-afternoon arrival of the Prussian forces to reinforce their strength, the Allied Forces gained the advantage. By that evening, Napoleon made one last attempt for victory. He sent in his most elite troops, the Imperial Guard. The guard attacked the front line on the ridge, but the Prussians were able to break through the French right flank and the French army retreated in defeat. Eventually Napoleon abdicated on June 22 and on July 7, 1815, the Allies entered Paris and Luis XVIII was restored to power the next day.
The Battle of Waterloo became the final battle of both Napoleon’s campaign for rule and France’s efforts to expand their empire. Both of Napoleon’s plays for power and dominance waged huge amounts of destruction and violence in Europe. In Britain, the Duke of Wellington and the men who fought with him became heroes for conquering the world’s conqueror.
Portrait of Gioachino Rossini, 1828. Hortense Haudebourt-Lescot. Courtesy of Casa Rossini Lugo.
Gioachino Rossini was a very popular and prolific Italian composer of his time. He was born in 1792 in Pesaro, Italy to a trumpet playing father and a singing mother. Rossini started composing at the age of 12 and his first opera was performed in Venice in 1810, when he was 18 years old. Between the ages of 18 and 31 he wrote 34 operas, and in total in his career he composed 39 operas, in addition to some chamber music, piano pieces, songs, and some religious music.
Rossini’s most famous opera was a comedic opera titled, Il Barbiere di Siviglia, or The Barber of Seville. The opera is in two acts and is based on Pierre Beaumarchais’s French play, Le Barbier de Seville, written in 1773 and premiered 1775. Rossini’s operatic interpretation of this play was not the first, but it certainly became the most loved as it spread in popularity from Italy, through Europe, across the Atlantic to the Americas and then around the world. It was the first Opera to be sung in Italian in New York City in 1825.
The barber in the opera is named Figaro, and follows his adventures aiding Count Almaviva in winning the hand of the beautiful orphan Rosina. This is of course against the wishes of her guardian Bartolo. Beaumarchais wrote a second play about Figaro, Le Mariage de Figaro, which inspired another famous opera, The Marriage of Figaro, composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Mozart composed this opera 30 years prior to Rossini’s, but because the story follows Rossini’s in sequence, Rossini’s The Barber of Seville is considered a prequel to Mozart’s famous opera.
View a production of the The Barber of Seville here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iZO2BPS_pOw
Peerage: the titled nobility in Britain
Parlor Games: from the French word parler, meaning to speak, parlor games were games played indoors using the spoken word (e.g. charades, I Spy, Twenty Questions…)
Blue Stocking: an intellectual or literary woman. Often seen negatively in polite society in those times.
Cravat: forerunner of the modern necktie, a neckerchief worn by men, many worn in intricate styles.
Bloodletting: a practice formerly used by doctors/physicians to withdraw blood from patients to prevent or cure illnesses or diseases. The thought was that by releasing the blood, one could balance the “humours” of the body and thereby heal it.
Set her cap at: a person who sets out to gain the affections of another person, usually with the aim of marriage.
Oriel: a bay window that protrudes from the main wall of the building, but does not reach the ground.
The First Quadrille at Almack’s, 1892. From The Reminiscences and Reflections of Captain Gronow. Pub: J.C. Nimmo, London. Courtesy of the British Library.
Almack’s Assembly Rooms was the place to see and be seen during the height of the Regency London Season. It’s weekly balls, held every Wednesday night from April to July, were host to only the most exclusive of the Ton and where every aspiring debutante wished to be admitted. There they could gamble, partake of meager repasts, and dance.
Gaining admittance was not as simple as just showing up at the door. In order to gain permission to buy a voucher, or ticket, for the season, one had to gain approval from the Lady Patronesses of Almack’s who controlled the operation of the establishment. These patronesses were six to seven ladies from the top tier of society, from the most powerful families politically and socially. An Annual voucher, or ticket for entry, for the season could be purchased for ten guineas and it was non-transferable. Only the person it was issued to could use it, but the patronesses had the authority to revoke a voucher for a social faux pas or transgression which would then render the individual a social outcast. Subscribers could bring guests if they obtained approval for said guests from the patronesses and were given a “stranger’s ticket” of admission.
Once a voucher holder, your admittance to the rooms was not always guaranteed. There were strict rules that were enforced. For instance, men were required to wear breeches, stockings, waistcoats, evening coats and gloves. Ladies were required to be in Evening gowns and to wear long gloves. If your clothing did not meet the Patroness’ standards you were turned away at the door. You also had to be punctual. If you arrived after 11pm you could not gain admittance as the doors were closed to additional attendees.
But despite the strict rules of entry and admittance, Almack’s was still the place that everyone wanted to go. It was here that the real “marriage mart” of The Season was held, where young ladies could be introduced to society at large and eligible young men more specifically, outside of private balls and dinner parties. In fact, to some aspiring Mamas, having their daughters welcomed at Almack’s for their first season in London became more important than being presented to the queen.
A Couple Performing a Waltz, from Correct Method of German and French Waltzing, 1816. Wilson, Thomas. Courtesy of the British Library.
And of course, the main activity of Almack’s was dancing. In the early years of the 19th century the dances were limited to English country dances and Scottish reels. In these dances, though couples were partnered up, physical interaction was limited to holding of finger tips or hands as they moved among the other dances in a series of movements, sometimes switching partners as they performed figures. Needless to say, the contact between the ladies and the gentlemen was minimal.
This all changed with the introduction of the Waltz. The Waltz originated in Germany and Austria around 1750 as a couple’s dance of the lower classes, but by the later 18th century it had become popular in Vienna and then spread in popularity to other European countries. It is thought to have arrived in England in the early 1800’s, though the exact date is disputed among historians and sources, and made more popular around 1814 and 1815 with the end of the Napoleonic wars as diplomatic relationships in Europe resumed and State visits to England took place.
The Waltz created controversy in London society. It is a style of dance performed in the closed position with partners facing one another, requiring the dancers to be in an embrace-like hold, maintaining close proximity throughout the entire length of the dance. Many viewed this as improper, equating it to promiscuous and indecent behavior. Some mamas of young ladies in society would not permit their daughters to dance the Waltz. For these reasons, the waltz was banned from Almack’s until somewhere around the early 1810’s, the Patroness’ deemed it acceptable to be danced, but only with their express approval. If a young lady were to dance the waltz without first receiving approval from one of the Patronesses she would be relieved of her voucher and snubbed by society. But despite society’s misgivings, with time, the waltz rose in popularity and by the mid 19th century, it became the dance of choice in the ballrooms of London.
Lud: exclamation of dismay or surprise
Quadrille: a dance consisting of 4 couples danced in a square in a 2/4 or 6/8 time signature
Lady’s Pass: ticket or voucher of entry
A Peer: a member of nobility holding the title of Duke/Duchess, Marquis/Marchioness, Earl/Countess, Viscount/Viscountess, Baron/Baroness, Baronet/Dame, or Knight/Dame
Russian Gold: another name for rose gold, which was very popular in the early 19th century for Russian made jewelry. It is an alloy of gold mixed with copper, making it stronger and giving it a rosy tint.
Call him out: to draw attention to someone’s questionable behavior, occasionally resulting in an altercation between the two parties
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almack%27s#The_Assembly_Rooms_at_King_Street
https://merrynallingham.com/regency-period/almacks-assembly-rooms/
https://janeaustensworld.com/2011/01/14/almacks-assembly-room-and-its-snobbish-patronesses/
https://branchcollective.org/?ps_articles=cheryl-a-wilson-the-arrival-of-the-waltz-in-england-1812
https://www.regencydances.org/paper013.php
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waltz
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regency_dance
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron. Richard Westall, 1813. Courtesy of National Portrait Gallery (London)
“She walks in beauty, like the night
Of cloudless climes and starry skies;
And all that's best of dark and bright
Meet in her aspect and her eyes...”
― Lord Byron
For those living in the Regency Era, the options available for entertainment were not as varied as they are for us today, though there are some that will always span the divide of time. The written word is a form of entertainment that has entertained and delighted many both in Regency times and today. And one such author who was popular in that era was George Gordon Byron, better known as Lord Byron. He was born in 1788 to army officer, Captain John Byron, and a Scottish heiress, Catherin Gordon. When young Byron was 10 years old, he inherited the Byron ancestral home, Newstead Abbey, from his great-uncle, and became the 6th Baron of Rochdale. Byron was educated at Harrow, a prestigious school for boys, and Trinity College at Cambridge. It was during these years that his talent for writing emerged, but it was also a time when he started a life of pleasure-seeking and revelry which defined him as flamboyant, passionate, and scandalous.
“I live not in myself, but I become
Portion of that around me: and to me
High mountains are a feeling, but the hum
of human cities torture.”
― George Gordon Byron, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage
Lord Byron’s widespread fame wasn’t solidified until 1812, when the first two cantos of his narrative poem, “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage” was published. The work is considered autobiographical and follows the travels of a young man who is dissatisfied with his life of leisure and revelry as he looks for diversions away from home. The subject matter of the narrative is the young man’s thoughts on the beautiful scenery and his melancholy with seeking pleasure and his disillusionment with the world. Byron also traveled extensively and the first two cantos are thought to be based on his experiences in the Mediterranean.
“There is something pagan in me that I cannot shake off. In short, I deny nothing, but doubt everything.”
― George Gordon Byron
Despite Byron’s fame, his life was one filled with scandal. He engaged in many affairs and was rumored to have one with his half-sister, as well as actresses, and ladies of the ton. In an effort to assuage his guilt and escape rumor, he married Annabella Milbanke in 1815 in the hopes that she could “reform him.” But the marriage was acrimonious and after the birth of their daughter, Ada, in December 1815, Annabella left Byron in January of 1816 to live with her parents. They were legally separated and with the scandal of his failed marriage, the past rumors of incest and multiple affairs, Byron, having become as wicked as his creation Childe Harold, left England in April of 1816 and never returned. He spent his time in Switzerland, Italy, and Greece and continued to publish his works.
Byron died in Italy in 1824 of a violent fever. Though his popularity had been tarnished by scandal, his poetry and words are beloved the world over today.
“Be thou the rainbow in the storms of life. The evening beam that smiles the clouds away, and tints tomorrow with prophetic ray.”
― Lord Byron
View of West Front of Treasurer’s House, Anonymous, approx. 1730-1769. Courtesy of National Trust, UK.
When all the balls and merriment of The Season was over and the heat of the summer was upon London, the gentry and aristocracy would escape to the country for cooler temperatures. In order to continue the social interactions enjoyed during the season, many would hold house parties during the months of August through December. These gatherings would last from a few weeks to sometimes months, depending on the hosts wealth and the guest’s leisure. If your own family didn’t own their own country estate, you would try to get an invitation from a family member or friend, or maybe a young gentleman’s family would invite the family of the young lady he was pursuing during the London season to get better acquainted.
To entertain their guests, many hosts would plan many events and delights for their guests. The latter half of the year was season to grouse, fox, and pheasant hunting and many hunts were organized to entertain the men. Other outdoor amusements included, archery, lawn tennis, croquet, lawn bowling, fishing in ponds, long country walks, and horseback riding. There were also day trips planned to see nearby architectural marvels or natural wonders. Indoor entertainments included letter writing, reading, playing the pianoforte, playing cards, putting on theatrical plays, and many other types of parlor games. And the most lavish of entertainments for the guests were the balls and parties they attended locally or that their hosts held.
Country house parties were a very expensive venture. This was true for both the host and the guest. The host incurred the cost of feeding his/her guests, furnishing them with whatever they would need while there and what they would need for entertainment, and hiring any additional staff.
You may think all the guest had to do is show up, but the houses they were invited to visit were houses of the Gentry and Aristocracy, who were used to opulence and refinement. Guests needed to ensure they were attired in the finest of dresses and clothing, sometimes reacquiring new gowns and clothes be made so they would not show up in the same gowns worn during the season, as that would have been seen as a faux pas. Plus, each different meal and event required different modes of dress for the ladies, which dictated a plethora of clothing be brough with them. The luggage required was immense, and unless their host offered to fund their travel, they would have to pay their way to the house either via their own carriage, or via stage coach. In addition, guests were also expected to pay their host’s servants through vails, or tips. This included the grooms, maids, cooks, or any servant who aided them while during their stay.
For many, the prospect of attending a country house party was just too costly, but if you were lucky or blessed enough you could enjoy many amusements outside of the bustle of the city.
Gobsmacked: astonished, surprised
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Byron
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lord-Byron-poet
https://www.bl.uk/people/lord-byron
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childe_Harold%27s_Pilgrimage
https://thebeaumonde.com/main/nineteenth-century-house-party-by-regina-scott/
http://www.reginascott.com/houseparty.html
“Give a girl an education, and introduce her properly into the world, and ten to one but she has the means of settling well, without farther expense to anybody.”
Mrs. Norris, Mansfield Park, by Jane Austen
The education of young ladies of the ton in Regency England was vastly different than our modern take on education. As Jane Austen indicates in the quote above, the aim at educating young ladies, was to provide a way for these young women to elevate themselves in society. The goal in sending their daughters to school was to better prepare them to be married off so they would not become a lifelong burden to their parents. Consequently, these schools sought to teach ladies only the things they needed to know to attract a suitable husband and elevate their social status. Nothing more. But there may have been an exception to the rule.
Adelaide and Julianna met at a school which Julianna refers to as “Mrs. R’s school,” meaning Mrs. Rowden. This is not a fictional school but was an actual school for ladies during the Regency Era, though the school was owned by a man by the name of Dominique de Saint-Quentin.
St. Quentin was from France and came to England to take a position as a French master at the Abbey School in Reading, a school for ladies, which interestingly was also once attended by Jane Austen and her sister Clarissa. This original school was not of an academic bent whatsoever, but St. Quentin brought some prestige when he joined the staff. Eventually St. Quentin acquired the school from the previous owner and moved it to 22 Hans Place in London.
In 1790, a former governess known as Mrs. Rowden (though she had never been married,) joined the staff. This new version of the school became a vastly different institution. It taught the young ladies who attended there history, geography, science, Italian, arts, literature, and more. Mrs. Rowden headed the efforts to teach the pupils in literature, poetry, drama, and art and was even a published author. She was also known to have provided her pupils with extracurricular educational experiences, such as attending the opera, lectures, museums etc., and encouraging them to read elevated literature usually reserved for male students. In comparison to other Regency era ladies’ schools, the pupils at 22 Hans Place received a very well-rounded education.
Mrs. Rowden became a fixture in the school and in 1809 she was fully managing the entire school.
Eventually, after St. Quentin’s first wife passed away, Mrs. Rowden, until then a single woman, married her employer.
Mrs. R had a profound impact on the girls who attended her school. Many of her former pupils such as Lady Caroline Lamb, Letitia Elizabeth Landon, and Mary Russell Mitford became poets, actors, playwrights, and authors. Because of this, the school was thereafter affectionately referred to by her pupils as Mrs. Rowden’s school.
The Battle of Waterloo, June 18th 1816, image from narrative poem “The Wars of Wellington” by William Heath and J.C. Sadler, London, 1819. Curtesy of thehttps://gem-3910432.net British Library
Napoleon Bonaparte rose in prominence in the French military through his many victories during the French Revolutionary Wars. He became the leader of France in 1799 following the end of the French Revolution, and its Emperor in 1804 when he created an imperial system of succession. During this time of war and Napoleon’s rule, his aim was to expand the French Empire and to establish France as a superior economic and military power in Europe.
Napoleon Bonaparte was a very skilled military strategist that aided in expanding his empire. However, an unsuccessful campaign in 1812 in Russia was the beginning of the end of Napoleon’s rule. In October 1813, after having to retreat from Russia without a victory, the French army was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig in Germany and the French army was forced to return to France. Eventually in March 1814 the Coalition Forces were able to advance in Paris and defeat a weakened French army and in April 1814 Napoleon abdicated his rule as Emperor and was exiled to the island of Elba.
Napoleon spent 10 months on Elba, until he was able to escape aboard a French navy vessel. Being the brilliant military strategist he is, Napoleon painted the vessel to look like a British ship, loaded it with those who were loyal to him and sailed away from his imprisonment. On 28 February 1815 he and his men landed in France and made their way North towards Paris. Napoleon arrived in Paris on 20 March 1815 and by June he had amassed an army of 200,000 that he then utilized against the growing British and Prussian forces that were hurriedly mobilizing to end Napoleon’s reign.
Napoleon only governed this second time for a period of one hundred days, which came to an end at the Battle of Waterloo. This battle, which took place in modern day Belgium, was fought on 18 June 1815 between the French army under the command of Napoleon and two Coalition armies. One of the coalition forces was Prussian and was led by Field Marshal von Blucher, the other was made up of units from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Hanover, Brunswick, and Hanover and was led by British commander the Duke of Wellington. As the Duke of Wellington’s troops endured repeated attacks from the French army, Blucher’s army attacked on the French’s right flank, ultimately broke through and together they defeated them. Napoleon abdicated his rule, for the second time, on 24 June 1815.
Scene in Plymouth sound in August 1815, John James Chalon, 1816. Courtesy of the Royal Museums Greenwich
Despite Napoleon being the enemy of the British Army for a decade and a half, he was quite popular with some of England’s citizens. Many who sided with the Whig party were supporters of Napoleon, because they did not believe in absolute monarchies and did not want the Bourbons restored to power in France. Many of these individuals were landed aristocracy, which garnered them increased political power and influence. Another notable sympathizer of Napoleon’s was the poet, Lord Byron. Byron was a very well-known poet of his time and wrote poems about Napoleon and his heroic efforts. Other writers and public figures were also supporters, creating a buzz around this intriguing ruler from France. So much so, that when the British brought Napoleon to Britain, for the two weeks that the ship he was sequestered on was anchored in the Plymouth sound, crowds of people would gather on the shore and in boats to see if they could get a view of him. Napoleon would make sure he took a walk on deck every evening so he could wave to his admirers.
Parlor Boarder: students at a school who paid more in tuition for a room of their own and meals
Felo-de-se: Latin for suicide
Marriage Mart: specifically, a nickname for Almack’s Assembly Rooms, as a place for young men and women to meet one another during the season. Generally, it was used to reference the season’s overall intentions of matching up young women with proper husbands.
Presented to the Queen: An annual ball was held in celebration of Queen Charlotte’s birthday. At the first ball, debutantes curtsied to the queen as she stood next to her birthday cake. This started the tradition of the noble and gentry presenting their young women to the queen at the annual ball, allowing them to then partake in the festivities of the season. This tradition continued until the mid-20th century.
Master Clementi: Muzio Clementi, a notable pianist, organist, and composer. He became a sought-after piano master for young women.
Funning: joking or kidding
An Express: mail that was sent directly from the sender to the receiver, without having to stop at the post offices to sort mail, allowing it to arrive quicker
Gold Sovereign: a gold coin introduced into circulation in 1817, worth a pound
https://www.madamegilflurt.com/2015/01/22-hans-place-mrs-rowdens-school.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon#Invasion_of_Russia
https://www.madamegilflurt.com/2015/01/22-hans-place-mrs-rowdens-school.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_forces_of_the_Napoleonic_Wars
https://shannonselin.com/2018/09/supporters-of-napoleon-england/
https://www.history.com/topics/france/napoleon#section_6
The Opening of Waterloo Bridge seen from Whitehall Stairs, June 18 1817, oil on canvas, by John Constable. Courtesy of the Tate Britain, London
It must have been a joyful occasion to witness the opening of The Waterloo Bridge on June 18, 1817, as the Prince Regent, accompanied by the Duke of York and the victorious Duke of Wellington, walked across the bridge. Even more joyful when you note that it was the second anniversary of the British victory over the French in the Napoleonic Wars at the Battle of Waterloo, led by Wellington. The opening of the Waterloo Bridge brought crowds of people to watch the festivities to witness the magnificence of the granite bridge, with nine arches, spanning 2,456ft across the Thames River in London.
At the time preceding the building and completion of the Waterloo Bridge, the British Kingdom had been in war since 1803 against the French empire. The businessmen who were profiting from the war thought investing their money in toll bridges across the Thames would be a safe way to recoup their funds. Unfortunately, the Waterloo bridge ended up not being a good investment. The bridge, in the end, ended up costing over a million pounds to build and when the tolls were open to pedestrians and carriages, customers opted to use the free bridges that could be found not too far down the river on either side. The bridge tolls were closed in 1877 and became free to use when it was acquired by the city and was no longer privately owned.
The majestic granite structure, as depicted in Claude Monet’s famous series of paintings, is not the same Waterloo bridge we see today. The early 19th century construction could not withstand the increasing flow of the river and the heavy weight of motor vehicles. By the 1930s, after many attempts to save the structure, the decision was made to demolish and rebuild. In 1934, the bridge was demolished, and in 1937 construction began on the new bridge and was completed in 1945.
The timing of the new bridge is an interesting one considering this is right in the middle of World War II. As the majority of able-bodied men were off fighting the Axis Powers, women were employed to work on constructing The Waterloo Bridge. For many years, this fact was mere urban legend told by the river boat captains and was not officially recognized as a part of the bridge’s history. It wasn’t until the early 2000s when historians started documenting oral histories and photographic evidence was found that the archive of history was amended to honor the hard work of these women. To think, a bridge once built by the spoils of war, then being rebuilt by the women left behind by another…bridges really can span past and present.
Waterloo Bridge, Veiled Sun, oil on canvas, 1903, by Claude Monet, courtesy of Memorial Art Gallery, Rochester
The Season: the annual period in the spring and summer for the social elite to reside in the city vs. the country and hold balls, dinner parties, charity functions, etc. where they can be seen in society. Traditionally, it is also the time of year that children, especially girls, of marriageable age were “launched” into society. During this time, debutantes, or young women of the noble families, were presented to the queen at Court.
The Ton: the upper echelons of society, comprised of those families in the aristocracy, nobility, royalty and gentry. Sometimes, families who are middle class, but raise their standing through marriage or wealth are accepted into the ton.
Romeville: a slang term to refer to London. Phineas uses this tern in a tongue-in-cheek way when referring to the mothers of the season’s debutantes.
Sources Used:
https://londonist.com/london/history/secrets-of-waterloo-bridge
https://www.thehistoryoflondon.co.uk/the-original-waterloo-bridge/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterloo_Bridge
https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-33238462